Martial music

While most contemporary militaries have relegated music to a largely ceremonial role, historically it has proven to be an integral part of war making. In addition to inspiring soldiers in combat, music has served a vital communications function in variety of military activities—from drilling soldiers and organizing the daily ritual of military life to coordinating movements in battle.

Ancient Period: To 500 c.e.

The oldest form of martial music is most likely the war song, chanted by warriors as a prelude to battle. The war song served to ritualize and formalize conflict, often performing a specifically religious function. For instance, Sioux warriors performing the Sun Dance chanted songs or blew tunes into eagle bones in order to win the protection in battle from ancestors or animal spirits. This treatment of music as a form of magic is also evident in the biblical account of the Israelites’ Siege of Jericho (c. 1400 b.c.e.) in which the sonic assault of their ram’s horns reputedly caused the city walls to tumble down. A less fanciful example of music’s importance in archaic battle can be found in the bas-relief of the Battle of Kadesh (1283 b.c.e.), located in the temple of Abu Simbel, which features trumpeters prominently in the battle lines and, significantly for Egyptian iconography, depicts them in the same size as their fellow warriors.

Like the other martial civilizations of the ancient Near East, the Israelites and Egyptians used music in battle for primarily psychological purposes—to incite their own troops to bravery and to intimidate the enemy. Yet the tactical use of music in battle is generally credited to the Greco-Roman culture of the first millennium b.c.e. Although ancient civilizations such as the Parthians and the Chinese are credited with introducing drums to direct battles, the Greeks relied instead on horns—and a wide vocabulary of military calls—to direct the sophisticated troop movements required of the phalanx. Unlike their military predecessors, the Greeks, and in turn the Romans, took a largely rationalistic approach to the use of music in battle. Thus Greco-Roman military historian Polybius argued against the use of archaic battle horns to startle the enemy in favor of lighter instruments such as the cornu, which a musician could easily mount over his shoulder and carry within the tight battle formations. The cornu’s precision allowed its player to perform a wide variety of musical calls to dictate actions in combat (advances, retreats) or camp (assembly, mess, hours of the watch, warnings of surprise attacks). The Roman army’s sophisticated use of musical calls gave them a tactical advantage over their Celtic enemies, who carried into battle the threatening but unwieldy carnyx (a rudimentary horn terminating in the shape of an animal head).

Medieval Period: 500 c.e. to 1500 c.e.

For a time in the early medieval period, successful militaries such as the Byzantines and the Arabs opted for relative silence on the battlefield. Such practice seemed in part to conform to a prevailing cultural austerity that upheld the ideal of a “holy warrior,” fighting for God rather than material gain or personal vainglory. Indeed, the banishment of music among the armies of Muhammad and his successors may have been a deliberate attempt to distance themselves from pre-Islamic Arabs whose women would sing and dance suggestively during battle in order to spur their men to battle. The banishment of military music from the field also resulted from the practical realization that too heavy a reliance on auditory signals only added to the noise and confusion of battle. Moreover, in the rapid warfare of the horse-dominated Arab armies, military music was considered a luxury that only impeded military objectives and sapped precious resources.

Martial music made something of a comeback during the Crusades. In this slower, siege-dominated warfare, music resumed its twin psychological functions of morale-boosting and intimidation. At first Crusaders used music sparingly on the battlefield—martial orders such as the Knights Templars and Hospitalers sang psalms in preparation for battle. However, the Crusaders quickly adopted the large military bands of their Muslim opponents. Such bands, which included large sections of winds, brass, and percussion, not only roused men to battle but also advertised an army’s wealth and power. During the late Middle Ages in Europe, as the code of chivalry affected the ideal if not the reality of warfare, the military band expanded to include court minstrels, ready to inspire the troops to bravery and to record their royal patrons’ courage in battle.

Modern Period: 1500–2000

As the division of labor in combat increased—as well as the size and complexity of Renaissance warfare—music in battle became socially stratified. In general, fife-and-drum corps became associated with infantry troops, and trumpets and other horns ranging from bugles to clarinets became tied to cavalry. In his Dell’ arte della guerra (1521; The Art of War, 1560), Niccolò Machiavelli insisted on this division for pragmatic reasons, arguing that different types of instruments were needed to direct different tactical maneuvers and, in general, to avoid confusion in battle. His dictates were successfully put into effect in the Battles of Marignano (1515) and Pavia (1525). Yet at the same time that music on the battlefield was becoming more specialized and utilitarian, the military band as a whole was evolving from a hodgepodge of sackbutts and small pipes into a strictly regulated number of horns, winds, and drums. The development of the military band mirrored the development of professional armies in seventeenth century Europe, with training centered increasingly around drill and close-order marching coordinated by musicians. At the same time, music became an integral part of naval life, with instruments such as pipes and horns used to coordinate the multitudinous activities on a warship.

The military band reached its apogee in the eighteenth century, as it took on a central function in the highly formalized warfare of the period. Music dictated the tempo for marching soldiers to battle and, once they were there, it coordinated their every movement. On ship, pipers directed seamen to trim sail or to fire cannon shot. Yet for all its innovative force, music also humanized warfare that was becoming increasingly dominated by military technology (for example, repeating rifles and long-range artillery) that lessened the role of individual bravery and initiative in battle. As armies and navies ventured increasing distances from their homeland, military musicians adapted traditional airs to inspire the troops and remind them of why they were fighting. Foot soldiers and common sailors added doggerel verses to martial tunes to make them into “signature” songs. For instance, in the American Revolution (1775–1783), American troops adapted “Yankee Doodle” from a popular British marching tune. In the American Civil War (1861–1865), battle songs ranging from “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” to “Dixie” played a crucial function in reminding troops of the larger issues for which they were fighting. Indeed, Robert E. Lee, who positioned military bands in the woods to play during George E. Pickett’s charge at Gettysburg, is reported to have said that without music there would have been no armies.

Despite its psychological importance, martial music was already on the wane by the American Civil War. In new era of highly technical, far more lethal warfare, music in battle became little more than a comforting anachronism. For instance, the sentimentalization of the “little drummer boy” on the American Civil War battlefield masked the fact that children were often exploited in such positions because they were most expendable personnel; indeed, they were often explicitly targeted by enemy sharpshooters to disrupt the opponent’s battle line. In the twentieth century, further increases in communications and transportation technologies helped to relegate the bugle, fife, and drum to their present ceremonial function. Just as the two-way radio did away with the need for musical calls in battle, so the use of rail, tank, and automobile lessened the need for the infantry march guided by musical instruments. Moreover, the widespread adoption of guerrilla tactics has further rendered the military band superfluous. Sound recordings and radio technology have obviated the final and perhaps most human function of military music—providing entertainment and solace to soldier and sailor. Perhaps the real future of martial music lies in the psychological use of recorded music as the information media merge the battle and home fronts. For instance, during the Gulf War (1991), pop singer Lee Greenwood’s “God Bless the USA” became a patriotic rallying cry for the United States’ military action both at home and on the battlefield.

Ten Major Musical Compositions

Bibliography

Blom, Eric, ed. Grove’s Dictionary of Music and Musicians. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1961.

Camus, Raoul F. Military Music of the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1976.

Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War. London: Greenhill Books, 1998.

Lloyd, Alan B., ed. Battle in Antiquity. London: Duckworth, 1996.

Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Source Book. London: Arms & Armour, 1995.

Olson, Kenneth. Music and Musket: Bands and Bandsmen of the American Civil War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981.

The Victory Collection: The Smithsonian Remembers When America Went to War. Audio recording. BMG Music, 1995.

White, William Carter. A History of Military Music in America. Reprint. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1975.