White Australia policy
The White Australia Policy refers to a series of immigration laws and practices that aimed to maintain a predominantly white European population in Australia, officially codified with the Immigration Restriction Bill of 1901. This policy emerged from fears among white Australians, particularly of British descent, that an influx of nonwhite immigrants, especially from China, threatened their job security and the racial composition of the nation. Beginning in the mid-19th century, various legislative measures were enacted to limit nonwhite immigration, including literacy tests and numerical quotas, culminating in the 1901 law that entrenched these restrictions.
The policy remained in effect until after World War II when external pressures, such as the need for American military cooperation, catalyzed a gradual transformation of immigration laws. Over the following decades, Australia moved from a racially exclusive immigration framework to a more multicultural approach, embracing diversity and integration. Significant legislative changes in the 1960s and 1970s dismantled the legal structures of the White Australia Policy, leading to increased immigration from nonwhite populations. Today, Australia is recognized for its cultural diversity, with a significant portion of the population being foreign-born or having immigrant backgrounds. Efforts to address historical injustices faced by Indigenous Australians and to promote racial equality continue to evolve in Australian society.
White Australia policy
The 1901 Immigration Restriction Bill officially codified White Australia Policy, an accretion of anti-immigrant, race-based laws designed to prevent the European population, itself descended from immigrants, from being "swamped" by Chinese and other non-White immigrants. During the European colonial era, the majority of the world’s populations were under the control of the competitive and expansionist European powers. A few colonies were considered to be settler colonies because of the large number of migrants from Europe. After independence, White dominance and privilege were established through legislative actions and immigration policies favoring European immigration. These policies came to be known as "whitening" policies because of the immigration priorities and preferences given to White European immigrants. The White Australia Policy is the Australian variant of the practice.
Brief History
Antagonism between European, primarily British, and Chinese miners began in Australia during the 1850s. Australia’s British labor supply was initially the result of the deportation of prisoners from British jails. As the number of prison labor populations declined, doors were opened to migration of laborers from China and other Pacific Islands. The flow of low-wage labor from China began prior to the 1850s. Chinese workers were indentured servants who were bound to pay off the cost for their passage to Australia.
The large number of Chinese migrant laborers caused alarm among European laborers because of perceived threats to their job security and wages. White Australians and policymakers believed the rising population of Chinese immigrants threatened the racial makeup of the country. The first race-based anti-immigration policy was passed in 1855 to restrict the number of Chinese immigrants. Immigration quotas were followed by the levy of taxes to restrict Chinese immigrant communities and immigrants at the ports throughout the entire country. This was followed by legislation limiting the immigration of indentured sugar plantation workers from the Pacific Islands. The 1868 and 1883 Polynesian Laborers Acts were passed. In 1896, anti-immigration laws were extended to all non-White and non-European immigrant populations, regardless of origin. Restrictive literacy and language tests systematically discriminated against non-White immigrants. Finally, in 1901, the Immigration Restriction Bill passed to officially codify the White Australia Policy.
The policy remained in place until the end of World War II, during which the government attempted to restrict the deployment of African American military personnel to Australia from the United States. The US government essentially forced the Australian government to allow the deployment of African American military personnel as part of its Pacific offensive against Japanese forces in the Pacific theater of the war. The long-term consequence of this forced change in Australia’s restrictive immigration policy was the slow unravelling of White Australia immigration policy.
In the postwar years, the Australian government eventually allowed the immigration of the non-White spouses of Australian veterans. In 1958 a migration act was passed, and during the 1960s and 1970s successive laws passed by national and state level governments dismantled the legal architecture and of racial discrimination. In the spring of 1966, all "well-qualified" non-Europeans, based upon their skill levels and ability to integrate in Australian society, were allowed to immigrate. The numbers of "qualified" non-Whites surged.
White Australia Policy Today
Through the incremental dismantling of Australia’s racially exclusive immigration policies, the country has transformed from a culture of racial dominance to one of multiculturalism, diversity, integration, and tolerance. The Australian government consistently passed anti-discrimination policies and various mechanisms and institutions to promote diversity and multiculturalism. The country has become one of the more diverse populations in the world.
According to the 2021 Census, 27.6 percent of the population is foreign-born; 48.2 percent have at least one parent who is foreign born; most of the non-White migrants come from China, India, Malaysia, Nepal, South Korea, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Smaller populations are originally from Africa and Latin America. Increasingly, the country has also experienced religious diversification.
The major population source of Australia’s racial diversity is the Indigenous Australian population, who were the first to be victimized by colonization and "whitening" through systematic extermination policies, forced geographical removal and relocation, forced assimilation, and complete socioeconomic and political subjugation. The end of White Australia Policy paved the way for the integration and inclusion of the Indigenous Australian population and their pursuit of socioeconomic reparation.
The 1975 Racial Discrimination Act, 1995 Racial Hatred Act, 1986 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act, and a series of regional and state equal opportunity acts are examples of legal efforts to pursue justice and right historic wrongs. In spite of resistance by some on the political right, government policies during the 1990s continued to progress toward the elimination of past racial barriers. The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination acknowledged Australian efforts to unravel the past policies and practices of racism.
As the country continues to position itself in the rapidly changing global economy and to deal with the ineluctable rise of China in the region, very few remnants of the White Australia policy remain in policy practice. Policymakers and the judicial system continue to respond to racially motivated hate crimes through legislation and judicial actions and to assuage any fears remaining from the small number of White people who fear racial diversity. Diversity has become a desirable goal, as the country’s leaders and majority view it as beneficial to its future economic wealth, growth, and development.
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