Churches, Denominations, Sects and Cults

The concepts of churches, denominations, sects, and cults serve to categorize the diverse landscape of organized religion, particularly within Christianity. Churches refer to communities or buildings where worship occurs and can represent various organizational structures and beliefs. Within Christianity, denominations are large groups of congregations united by common faith statements and can be classified broadly into Eastern Orthodox, Western Catholic, and numerous Protestant branches. Sects are smaller groups that have diverged from mainstream denominations, often emphasizing specific beliefs or practices while remaining within the broader religious tradition.

In contrast, cults are typically viewed as radical offshoots that deviate significantly from mainstream religious practices and societal norms. They are often characterized by charismatic leadership, total commitment from members, and aggressive recruitment tactics. Understanding these distinctions is essential for grasping the complexities of religious dynamics, societal interactions, and cultural implications. The interplay between these various subgroups illustrates the broader themes of belief, identity, and community within the context of world religions.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A. | Baker, Jeremy

Subject Terms

Churches, Denominations, Sects and Cults

World religions distinguish themselves by their beliefs in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and to govern the universe. Many of these religions are further distinguished internally by various subdivisions that differ on issues of orthodoxy, theology, and practice. For the purposes of this article, the discussion will focus primarily on Christianity. Christian denominations comprise a large group of congregations united under a common statement of faith. In general, Christian denominations are aligned with the Eastern (or Orthodox) Church, the Western (or Catholic) Church, or are considered Protestants. In addition, many religions, including Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, also have numerous sects and cults. Sects are distinct subgroups united by common beliefs or interests within a larger group. Cults comprise groups that deviate sharply from and strongly reject the prevailing culture, are dominated by a charismatic leader, require total commitment, include a comprehensive ideology, and are aggressive and often manipulative in efforts to recruit new members. Understanding the differences between these sub-groupings can help social scientists understand the role of religion on society and its effects on the worldview of the people in that culture.

Keywords Church; Congregation; Cult; Denomination; Fundamentalism; Religion; Schism; Sect

Sociology of Religion > Churches, Denominations, Sects, & Cults

Overview

Terms used to refer to various groups and subgroups within religions can be puzzling even to an insider. Even the very definition of religion may be confusing, for they take such varied forms across cultures. To illustrate one difficulty in defining religion, one needs only look toward Buddhism. Most Buddhist sects do not acknowledge the existence of a creator god or any other supreme being, for that matter. Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, and the other buddhas are not considered deities but as teachers.

Religions may be defined as the personal or institutional systems that are grounded in a belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and/or to govern the universe. However, the nature of this supernatural power, how one should act toward the it, and other belief systems surrounding the supernatural are open to debate and create the distinctions between different religions. In addition, belief in a common deity alone is not sufficient to define religion. For example, while Judaism, Islam, and Christianity all are based on the belief of one god and all trace their roots back to Abraham, these three belief systems are considered to be different religions because of their beliefs on the nature their deity and what that deity requires of them.

Even within a particular religion, there may be various types of subgroups that differentiate their members from one another based on their beliefs about their deity or on what that deity requires of them. For example, Judaism comprises several different subgroups, including Orthodox, Reformed, and Conservative, which differ on the strictness with which they interpret the Torah and Talmudic teachings. Similarly, Islam includes various subgroups including the Sunnites and Shiites. Christianity also has a diversity of subgroups, and a complete discussion is well outside the limitations of this article. In general, however, one can argue that Christianity can be categorized into three main groups: the Western or Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern or Orthodox Church, and various Protestant denominations.

For the purposes of brevity, this article will use the monotheistic religions of the Western world as examples. These examples are used first because these are the traditions most likely to be familiar to our readership, and second because of their relative similarity to each other. For a detailed description of the variety of world religions see Huston Smith's World Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions.

The Christian Church

Part of the confusion about the Christian Church arises from the term church itself. Although the term church is usually used to refer to the building in which Christians meet for worship, the term includes several meanings. When capitalized, the term can refer to the Christian religion in general (as in the Christian Church or the Church), a major subcategory of the Christian Church (e.g., the Eastern Church, the Western Church, or the Catholic Church), or to a specific denomination (e.g., the Lutheran Church or the Baptist Church). The capitalized term can also be used as part of the name of a particular congregation (e.g., St. Mary's Catholic Church or the First Baptist Church). When used in lower case, the term can be used to refer to a building in which a particular congregation meets (e.g., "the church roof needs to be repaired") or to the congregation that meets together for religious services (e.g., "after Sunday services, there will be a church-wide meeting"). The term is also used to refer to a worship or other service held by a congregation (e.g., "I go to church on Sunday mornings"). In addition, the term church can be used to differentiate between ecclesiastical power and secular power (e.g., the separation of church and state). The term church is generally used only in the Christian religion and not Judaism or other religions.

Religious Subgroups

To understand the differences between subgroups within religions, the Christian Church serves as a good example. Originally, when Christianity was founded in the first century, there was no differentiation between branches, denominations, sects, or the like: It was all one church. This was often referred to in church documents as the catholic and apostolic church; the use of the lowercase word "catholic" denoted that it was universal. However, with time, differentiations began to appear in the various churches due to language, cultural, and political differences. Although beleaguered, the Roman empire survived in the East for another thousand years. However, it frequently encountered secular intervention in church matters. In the West, however, ecclesiastical leaders wielded political power. Because of growing cultural differences between East and West, decisions made in the Eastern Church were often made without the input or participation of the West. As a result, permanent schisms arose. In particular, a number of theological differences arose between Eastern and Western churches. In 1054, the Great Schism occurred, marking a permanent difference between the Eastern Church and the Western Church.

Denominations

While referred to as the Great Schism, this was not the only schism in the Christian Church. In 1517, Martin Luther (an Augustinian monk) wrote ninety-five theses intended to open dialogue with the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church over matters of what he perceived as corruption at the highest levels. He nailed this document to the door of the cathedral at Wittenberg, Germany. Rather than opening dialogue as Luther had intended, this action precipitated the Protestant Reformation and the eventual proliferation of various denominations within the Christian Church. According to the Handbook of Denominations in the United States (1995), there are currently approximately two hundred Christian denominations in the United States. A denomination comprises a large group of congregations united under a common statement of faith and organized under a single legal and administrative hierarchy. The Baptist, Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian Churches, for example, are all considered separate Christian denominations. To be considered a denomination and not a separate religion, the groups need to adhere to the same general tenets of the religion. The fact that they are separate denominations signifies that they disagree on one or more items of theology, doctrine, or practice that are not central tenets of the faith.

Denominational Subgroups

In addition, there can be denominational subgroups within a broad denominational line. For example, according to the Handbook of Denominations, there are twenty-seven distinct denominations of Baptists, eleven distinct denominations of Lutherans, eleven Methodist denominations, and nine Presbyterian denominations. Frequently, these splits occur over matters of theology. However, this is not always true. For example, one of the reasons that the Southern Baptist Convention broke off from the main body of Baptists in 1845 was over the political issue of slavery. To complicate matters further, whether a group of churches constitutes a denomination or not can be a debatable matter. For example, the Independent Fundamental Churches of America consider themselves to be nondenominational but are listed as a denomination (and so considered by many others) in the Handbook of Denominations.

The Creation of Denominations: Theological or Political?

The reasons for religious groups splintering into multiple denominations can be political, theological, or a combination of both. The breaking of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church during the time of Henry VIII, for example, was done largely for political reasons revolving around Henry's needs to produce a male heir and the primacy of the papacy in its ability to keep Henry from divorcing his wife whom he believed to be infertile. On the other hand, the current controversy in the worldwide Episcopalian Church over the ordination of openly gay priests and bishops is one of theology and disagreement over the interpretation of the Christian scriptures. Similarly, the split of Lutherans and later Protestants from the Roman Catholic Church was done over reasons of theology, with Luther attempting not to break from the church but to correct what he saw as corruption at the highest levels in the Roman Catholic Church. The split of the Southern Baptists from the larger body of Baptists, however, can arguably be viewed as a combination of these two reasons: Although slavery was definitely a political issue in the period leading up to the Civil War in the United States when the split occurred, the split also occurred over a disagreement about how to interpret the teachings of the Bible on slavery.

Once larger religious bodies split into denominations, they may or may not keep the same polity and organizational structure as their parent group. Some denominations are hierarchical in nature, with local priests or pastors reporting to bishops and higher level leaders who develop the doctrine and practice for the entire denomination (e.g., Catholic, Episcopal, Lutheran). Others denominations, on the other hand, are congregational in nature and most decisions are made at the level of the local church. Although conferences or conventions of representatives of such churches may meet and make resolutions, these typically are not binding and the local churches are still free to do as they think best.

Sects

For the most part, denominations are considered part of the mainstream of the religious traditions of which they are a part. However, this is not true of all religious subgroups. Sects are distinct subgroups united by common beliefs or interests within a larger group or denomination. When discussing religion, sects typically are groups that have separated from the larger denomination. For example, in April 2008, law enforcement officials raided a compound belonging to a fundamentalist sect of the Church of the Latter Day Saints because it was actively practicing polygamy. Although polygamy was a tenet of the Mormon Church in the 1800s, it has been rejected by the mainline church and is against the law in the United States. This sect resembles many sects in that it is an attempt to return to the fundamentals (in this case polygamy) of the religion. Similarly, other religions also have sects.

Cults

In general, a cult is a specific group that is outside of the religion accepted by the speaker. For example, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses are still considered cults by many mainline Christians despite the fact that these groups are firmly established. In more common parlance, however, a cult is characterized by several features: The group deviates sharply from and strongly rejects the prevailing religious culture; it is dominated by a charismatic leader (who often proclaims to be divine or have special access to divinity); the group demands total commitment of its members (including time and money); the group's theology includes a comprehensive ideology that touches on every facet of members' lives; the group is aggressive in efforts to recruit new members and sometimes resorts to manipulative techniques (as supposed to conversion of potential adherents).

There is often confusion about the difference between a sect and a cult. Both definitions tend to be rather vague and have much to do with the subjective point of reference for the speaker rather than an objective standard definition. In general, a sect can be considered to still fall within the general parameters and hold to the core values of a religion. The difference between a sect and a group that is within the mainstream of a religion, however, is that the sect holds values that the rest of the group sees as being heterodox. If heterodoxy is carried to extremes, the group may become a new religion. For example, in the early first century, Christianity was considered to be a sect of Judaism. However, as Christians began to claim as scripture documents that were not part of the canon of the Hebrew Bible (i.e., the books of the New Testament), they departed dramatically from the core beliefs of Judaism. Christian insistence that Jesus of Nazareth was not only a prophet or the long-expected Messiah, but actually the son of God was considered heresy to the Jews and the two groups became separate religions. Similarly, most Mormons consider themselves to be Christians. However, as with the addition of the New Testament to the canon of the Hebrew Bible, the addition of the Book of Mormon to the Christian canon is a profound and irreconcilable break similar to the extent that some Christians do not consider Mormons to also be Christians.

Whether sect or new religion, however, these groups differ from cults by the criteria discussed above. In particular, to be classified as a cult, a group needs to be headed by a charismatic leader who either claims to be divine or to have special access to the divine. A recent example of such a leader is the Reverend Sun Myung Moon (who claims to be the "Savior, Messiah, Returning Lord") of the Unification Church. In addition, although other churches and religions typically demand commitment to the religion, it is not to the same degree as the total commitment that is typically required in cults. For example, the Reverend Jim Jones of the People's Temple led the members of his group to commit mass suicide in 1978. Similarly, although religions often include comprehensive ideologies that they try to spread to nonbelievers, the ideologies and demands of cults are typically more extreme as are their rigorous, often manipulative techniques to proselytize. In fact, cults are frequently accused of using brainwashing techniques and their "rescued" adherents often need to go through a period of de-programming before they can live productive lives outside of the cult.

Applications

On the surface, the above discussion of terminology for various types of religious groups may seem more appropriate to theological or religious discussions than to social science. However, there is a long tradition of the sociological study of religion started by Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Furthermore, as some of the examples above illustrate, knowledge of the differences between these terms can help one better understand the behavior of groups that have common religious beliefs. In addition, social and behavioral scientists are frequently called in to deprogram members of destructive cults and help them readjust to mainstream society. Understanding the differences between mainstream and sectarian beliefs within religions can also help promote understanding between religions and religious groups and lessen the occurrence of prejudice that arises from the lack of such understanding.

In many cultures, religion and politics are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate them. To understand the politics or collective behavior of such a nation, one must understand its religion and the importance and influence of religious beliefs and practices on other aspects of society, culture, and behavior. Although many observers no longer consider the United States to be a Christian nation, this was not always true in the past. Understanding how and why this occurred can help one better understand the changes in American culture and society. It is important that social scientists understand the role of religion on society and how religion affects the worldview of the people in a culture in order to understand the behavior of individuals in society (particularly societies not their own). It is only with such consideration of religion that one can truly begin to understand the behavior of a culture or society and its people.

Conclusion

Within many of the religions of the world, there are various subdivisions that distinguish themselves based on issues of orthodoxy, theology, and practice. Within the Christian Church, denominations mark one such difference. Denominations comprise a large group of congregations united under a common statement of faith and organized under a single legal and administrative hierarchy. In general, denominations are aligned with the Eastern (or Orthodox) Church or the Western Church. The Western Church can be further broken down into Catholics and Protestants.

In addition, many religions, including Judaism, Islam, and Christianity, also have other types of sub-groupings. Sects are distinct subgroups united by common beliefs or interests within a larger group. For example, within Islam there are the Sunni and Shi'ia, and within the Mormon Church various fundamental sects that practice polygamy. Another distinctive type of religious group comprises cults. In the most common use of this term, these comprise subgroups within an established religion whose beliefs and practices are outside those that are accepted as mainstream by the majority of the denominations. In addition, the term cult is used to refer to any group that deviates sharply from and strongly rejects the prevailing culture. Cults are dominated by a charismatic leader (who often proclaims to be divine or have special access to divinity), require total commitment of its members (including time and money), include a comprehensive ideology that touches on every facet of members' lives, and are aggressive in efforts to recruit new members sometimes resorting to manipulative techniques (as supposed to conversion of potential appearance).

Terms & Concepts

Catholic: When capitalized, the term refers to a specific denomination (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church) or a specific congregation within such a denomination (St. George's Roman Catholic Church). When in lower case, the term is used to mean "universal" (e.g., "the holy, apostolic, and catholic church").

Church: Although originally used to refer to the building in which people met for worship, the term church is now used in several different ways. When capitalized, the term can refer to (a) the Christian religion in general (i.e., the Christian Church or the Church), (b) a major subcategory of the Christian Church (e.g., the Eastern Church or the Western Church), or (c) a denomination (e.g., the Lutheran Church or the Baptist Church). (d) The capitalized term can also be used as part of the name of a particular congregation. When in lower case, the term is used to refer to (e) a building in which a particular congregation meets, (f) the congregation that meets in that building, or (g) to a public worship or other service held by a congregation. (h) The lowercase term can also be used to differentiate between ecclesiastic power and secular power (i.e., church and state).

Congregation: A group of people that meets regularly for religious services. The term is applied to both Christian and Jewish groups (e.g., the congregation of Main Street Baptist Church or the congregation of Temple Beth Shalom).

Cult: Theologically, a cult refers to (a) a specific group that is outside one that is accepted as primary by the speaker. For example, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses are considered cults by many mainline Christians despite the fact that these groups are firmly established. In modern usage, however, a cult is often used more specifically to refer to (b) a group that deviates sharply from and strongly rejects the prevailing culture, is dominated by a charismatic leader (who often proclaims to be divine or have special access to divinity), requires total commitment of its members (including time and money), includes a comprehensive ideology that touches on every facet of members' lives, is aggressive in efforts to recruit new members sometimes resorting to manipulative techniques (as supposed to conversion of potential appearance). In addition, the term "cult" has several other mutually exclusive meanings. (c) In the broadest sense, a cult is a system of religious beliefs and rituals or (d) a body of adherents to that system. More narrowly, a cult is (e) a particular form or pattern of worship or ritual.

Denomination: A large group of congregations united under a common statement of faith and organized under a single legal and administrative hierarchy. Many individual congregations include the name of their denomination in the title of their church (e.g., First Baptist Church, St. Luke's Lutheran Church).

Doctrine: A principle (or body of principles) accepted or believed by a religious group.

Fundamentalism: A theological movement within many religions that attempts to reject the tenets and influences of contemporary secular culture and return to the basics (i.e., fundamentals) of the faith, typically through the literal interpretation of scripture.

Heresy: A religious opinion or doctrine that is at variance with the established beliefs and teachings of the denomination or church. The term is sometimes used more narrowly to refer to dissension from accepted Roman Catholic doctrine by one who is a baptized member of the Roman Catholic Church. Heresy also refers to the practice of adhering to such an opinion of doctrine (cf. orthodoxy).

Heterodoxy: Beliefs or teachings that are seen as being very different from traditional teachings of an established faith or religion (see also heresy).

Orthodoxy: Beliefs or teachings that are in accordance with the accepted or traditional teachings of an established faith or religion (cf. heresy).

Religion: A personal or institutional system grounded in the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and to govern the universe. Due to the great variety in the social institutions that we classify as religions, this definition is incredibly hard to pin down.

Schism: In general, a schism is a formal and intentional separation or division into factions.

Sect: A distinct subgroup united by common beliefs or interests within a larger group. In religion, sects typically have separated from the larger denomination.

Theology: The study and knowledge of the nature of God; the rational inquiry into religious questions and the search for religious truth.

Bibliography

Cross, F. L. & Livingstone, E. A. (Eds.) (1997). The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Healy, J. P. (2011). Involvement in a new religious movement: from discovery to disenchantment. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 13, 2–21. Retrieved November 4, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=58529496

Mead, F. S. & Hill, S. S. (1995). Handbook of denominations in the United States (10th ed.). Nashville: Abingdon Press.

Richardson, A. & Bowden, J. (Eds.) (1983). The Westminster dictionary of Christian theology. Philadelphia: SCM Press Ltd.

Schneider, J. (2011). Comparing practical theology across religions and denominations. Review of Religious Research, 52, 405–426. Retrieved November 4, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=63699122

Sharp, S., Carr, D., & MacDonald, C. (2012). Religion and end-of-life treatment preferences: assessing the effects of religious denomination and beliefs. Social Forces, 91, 275–298. Retrieved November 4, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85098995

Smith. H. (1991). The World's Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom Traditions. New York: HarperOne.

Churches, Denominations, Sects and Cults

On this Page

Subject Terms

Churches, Denominations, Sects and Cults

Sociology of Religion > Churches, Denominations, Sects, & Cults

Overview

The Christian Church

Religious Subgroups

Denominations

Denominational Subgroups

The Creation of Denominations: Theological or Political?

Sects

Cults

Applications

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading