Traditions of Asia

OVERVIEW

East Asian religious and philosophical traditions are many and diverse. Among the most prominent are Confucianism, Daoism (or Taoism), Shintō (or Shintoism), and animism. Confucianism is a philosophy introduced by the Chinese philosopher Confucius (Kongzi; 551–479 BCE) in the sixth century BCE, during the Zhou dynasty. Daoism, which centers on Dao (Tao), or “the way,” is a religious and philosophical tradition that also originated in China around the sixth century BCE. Shintō, “the way of the spirits,” is a Japanese tradition of devotion to spirits and rituals. Animism, which is practiced in various forms by many tribal societies around the world, is the belief that all manner of things have a soul or spiritual component. Animism is often combined with other beliefs, whether local folk traditions or global systems such as Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

• Number of Adherents Worldwide While there have been few dedicated studies on the subject, there were an estimated 499 million folk and ethnic religionists in China, according to Boston University's 2020 World Religion Database. In 2022, the US Department of State reported that 21.9 percent of China's total population practiced folk religions in 2021.

Extreme disparities exist in estimates of the number of Confucianists, mainly due to different surveys' varying distinctions of Chinese folk traditions. On the low end, between 5 and 6 million people, the majority of them in China, exclusively practice Confucianism, once the state religion of China. Including folk religions incorporating Confucian ideas may increase the number to as much as three hundred or four hundred million.

Statistics about Daoism, can also be difficult to estimate due to its blurred boundaries with other Chinese folk religions, but Boston University reported in 2020 that less than one percent of China's population, some 5.9 million people, practiced Daoism.

A 2018 Japanese government study found that approximately 69 percent of the Japanese population practiced some form of Shintōism, though many practitioners also practice aspects of Buddhism. The US government estimated that more than 48 percent of Japan's population, or 88.9 million people, followed Shintō by the end of 2019. Sects of Shintō include Tenrikyo (heavenly truth), founded in 1838. Shukyo Mahikari (divine light) is another, smaller sect founded in the 1960s. Like other sects, it is a blend of different religious traditions.

Estimates of the number of practitioners of animism also vary widely, given disparate classification methods and considerable overlap with other belief systems. Many researchers consider animism to be especially common in South Asia, while in East Asia it is typically combined with one or more other traditions. For example, so-called Chinese folk religion often blends animism with elements of Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism. Korean folk religion (also known as Korean shamanism or Muism) and Vietnamese folk religion also incorporate animism and ancestor worship.

• Basic Tenets Confucianism is a philosophy of life and does concerns itself not with theology but with life conduct. Chief among the aspects of life that must be tended are five key relationships, with particular focus on honoring ancestors and showing filial piety. Confucianism does not take a stand on the existence of God, though the founder, Confucius, referred to “heaven.” Except for this reference, Confucianism does not address the question of life after death.

Daoists believe that Dao (the way or the flow) is in everything. Daoism teaches that qi, or life energy, needs to be balanced between yin and yang, which are the female and male principles of life, respectively. With its doctrine of the evil of violence, Daoism borders on pacifism, and it also preaches simplicity and naturalness. Daoists believe in five elements—wood, earth, air, fire and water—that need to be in harmony. The five elements lie at the heart of traditional Chinese medicine, particularly acupuncture. In Daoism, it is believed that the soul returns to a state of nonbeing after death.

Shintō emphasizes nature and harmony, with a focus on lived experience rather than doctrine. Shintō, which means “the way of the gods,” is a polytheistic religion; Amaterasu, the sun goddess, is the chief god. At one point in Japan’s history, the emperor was believed to be a descendant of Amaterasu and therefore divine. In Tenrikyo Shintō, God is manifested most often as Oyakami, meaning “God the parent.”

Shintō teaches that some souls can become kami, a spirit, following death. Each traditional home has a god-shelf, which honors family members believed to have become kami. An older family member tends to the god-shelf, placing a bit of food and some sake (rice wine) on the shelf. To do their work, kami must be nourished. The Tenrikyo sect includes concepts from Pure Land Buddhism, such as an afterlife and the idea of salvation.

• Sacred Texts Five classic texts are sacred to the Confucians. These include the I Ching, or Book of Changes; the Book of Odes; the Book of History; the Book of Rites; and the Annals of Spring and Autumn. The Analects, a collection of Confucius’s sayings, is another revered classic. The Tao Te Ching (The Way of Power) is the most sacred book of the Daoists. Those who practice Shintō hold sacred two works: the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki. Both the Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) and the Nihon Shoki (or Nihongi; Chronicles of Japan) contain legends and creation myths about Japan, and were written during the eighth century.

• Major Figures Confucius, who lived during the sixth century, was the first great philosopher of China. Mengzi (Meng-tzu; 371–289 BCE), known in the West as Mencius, developed Confucius’s teachings about the higher power guiding human life. A collection of his sayings and ideas, titled the Mengzi, became a major Confucian text. Another ancient Chinese philosopher, Laozi(or Lao-tzu), was the founder of Daoism. He is believed to have been a contemporary of Confucius’s in the central region of China. Modern scholars are not certain he ever existed, though one account includes the story of Confucius visiting Laozi. Chuang Tzu wrote of Laozi and his ideas during the fourth and third centuries BCE. Shintō’s major figures include Ō no Yasumaro (d. 723), the compiler of the Kokiji who acted under the orders of Empress Gemmei and consulted a bard known to have an infallible memory; the scholar Motoori Norinaga (1730–1800), whose work led to a revived interest in ancient Shintō texts; and Nakayama Miki (1798–1887), the farmer’s wife who founded Tenrikyo.

• Major Holy Sites Most Confucian sacred places are located within private homes, where an ancestral shrine and an altar to gods and spirits are maintained. In China’s Shandong Province is Qufu, the site of Confucius’s family mansion, temple, and cemetery. The temple was built in 478 BCE, only a year after Confucius’s death, and has been maintained and enlarged. In addition to its status as a holy site, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has placed it on their World Heritage List.

Daoists regard mountains as a way to communicate with Earth’s primeval powers and with those who are immortal. Five of the nine sacred mountains in China are associated with Daoism: Hengshan in both the north and the south, Songshan in the south, Taishan in the east, and Huashan in the west. The holiest of the five is Taishan, which symbolizes stability, prevents natural disasters, and ensures fertility.

Shintoism has a high regard for natural beauty. As such, Shintō shrines are everywhere, particularly in mountains or near waterfalls. Mountains in particular are regarded as homes of the gods. Mount Fuji is the holiest Shintō mountain, and climbing it to reach the shrine on its peak is an act of worship. More than forty thousand shrines are dedicated to Inari, the rice god.

Shintō was formalized during the Yamato period (the name for ancient Japan), and because the emperor of the imperial dynasty was from the Yamato area and was considered divine, the whole region is revered. At Ise, located near the coast in Mie Prefecture, southeast of Nara, the shrine has been rebuilt every twenty years for at least fourteen centuries. This rebuilding ensures that Toyouke-Ōmikami (the harvest goddess) and Amaterasu (the sun goddess) are renewed in vigor, which in turn invigorates both the rice crop and the imperial line. Those who have died in war are revered as kami in Japan. In Tokyo, a shrine called Yasukuni is dedicated to them. However, there is controversy surrounding the place because of its association with Japan’s extreme nationalism prior to World War II.

• Major Rites & Celebrations Confucian celebrations have to do with honoring people rather than gods. At Confucian temples, the philosopher’s birthday is celebrated each September. In Taiwan, this day is called "Teacher’s Day." Sacrifices, music and dance are part of the event.

Daoism has a jiao (offering) festival near the winter solstice. It celebrates the renewal of the yang force at this turning of the year. During the festival priests, who have been ritually purified, wear lavish clothing. The festival includes music and dancing, along with large effigies of the gods which are designed to frighten away the evil spirits. Yang’s renewal is also the focus of New Year celebrations, which is a time for settling debts and cleaning house. Decorations in the yang warm colors of gold, orange and red abound.

Many of the Shintō festivals overlap with Buddhist ones. There are many local festivals and rituals, and each community has an annual festival at the shrine dedicated to the kami of the region. Japanese New Year, which is celebrated for three days, is a major feast. Since the sixteenth century, the Gion Festival has taken place in Kyoto, Japan. Decorated floats are part of the celebration of the shrine.

ORIGINS

History & Geography During the Zhou dynasty (1050–256 BCE) in China, the idea of heaven as a force that controlled events came to the fore. Zhou rulers believed that they ruled as a result of the "Mandate of Heaven," viewing themselves as morally superior to those of the previous dynasty, the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). They linked virtue and power as the root of the state.

By the sixth century the Zhou rulers had lost much of their authority. Many schools of thought developed to restore harmony, and were collectively known as the "Hundred Schools." Confucius set forth his ideas within this historical context. He traveled China for thirteen years, urging rulers to put his ideas into practice and failing to achieve his goals. He returned home to teach for the rest of his life and his ideas were not adopted until the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). During the Han period, a university for the nation was established, as well as the bureaucratic civil service that continued until the twentieth century. When the Chinese Empire fell in 1911, the Confucian way became less important.

Confucianism influenced not only early Chinese culture, but also the cultures of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The latter two nations also adopted the bureaucratic system. Confucianism arrived in Japan in the fifth or sixth century, and reached the height of its influence during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868 CE). Confucian scholars continue to interpret the philosophy for the modern period. Some regard the ideas of Confucius as key to the economic booms in the so-called "tiger" economies of East Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand). Confucianism continues to be a major influence on East Asian nations and culture.

Daoism’s power (te) manifests itself as a philosophy, a way of life, and a religion. Philosophically, Daoism is a sort of self-help regimen, concerned with expending power efficiently by avoiding conflicts and friction, rather than fighting against the flow of life. In China, it is known as School Daoism. As a way of life, Daoism is concerned with increasing the amount of qi available through what is eaten and through meditation, yoga, and tai chi (an ancient Chinese martial art form). Acupuncture and the use of medicinal herbs are outgrowths of this way of life. Church Daoism, influenced by Buddhism and Tao Chiao (religious Daoism), developed during the second century. This church looked for ways to use power for societal and individual benefit.

By the time of the Han dynasty (206–220 CE), Laozi had been elevated to the status of divine. Daoism found favor at court during the Tang dynasty (618–917 CE), during which the state underwrote temples. By adapting and encouraging people to study the writings of all three major faiths in China, Daoism remained relevant into the early twentieth century. During the 1960s and 1970s, Daoist books were burned and their temples were destroyed in the name of the Cultural Revolution (the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution). Daoism remains popular and vital in Taiwan.

Shintō is an ancient religion, and some of its characteristics appeared during the Yayoi culture (ca. 300 BCE–300 CE). The focus was on local geographic features and the ancestry of local clan leaders. At first, women were permitted to be priests, but that equality was lost due to the influence of Confucian paternalism. The religion declined, but was revived in 1871 following the Meiji Restoration of the emperor. Shoguns (warlords) had ruled Japan for more than 250 years, and Shintō was the state religion until 1945. Known as state Shinto, it was associated with the emperor cult and contributed to Japan’s militarism. After the nation’s defeat in World War II, the 1947 constitution forbade government involvement in any religion. In contemporary Shintō, women are permitted to become priests and girls, in some places, are allowed to carry the portable shrines during festivals.

Founder or Major Prophet Confucius, or Kongzi (Master Kong), was a teacher whose early life may have included service in the government. He began traveling throughout the country around age fifty, attempting and failing to interest rulers in his ideas for creating a harmonious state. He returned to his home state after thirteen years, teaching a group of disciples who spread his ideas posthumously.

According to legend, Daoism’s founder, Laozi, lived during the sixth century. Laozi may be translated as "Grand Old Master," and may be simply a term of endearment. He maintained the archives and lived simply in a western state of China. Weary of people who were uninterested in natural goodness and perhaps wanting greater solitude in his advanced years, he determined to leave China, heading for Tibet on a water buffalo. At the border, a gatekeeper wanted to persuade him to stay, but could not do so. He asked Laozi to leave behind his teachings. For three days Laozi transcribed his teachings, producing the five-thousand-word Tao Te Ching. He then rode off and was never heard of again. Unlike most founders of religions, he neither preached nor promoted his beliefs. Still, he was held with such regard that some emperors claimed descent from him.

No one is certain of the origin of Shintō, which did not have a founder or major prophet. Shintō—derived from two Chinese words, shen (spirit) and dao (way)—has been influenced by other religions, notably Confucianism and Buddhism.

Philosophical Basis Confucianism sought to bring harmony to the state and society as a whole. This harmony was to be rooted in the Five Constant Relationships: between parents and children; husbands and wives; older and younger siblings; older and younger friends; and rulers and subjects. Each of these societal relationships existed to demonstrate mutual respect, service, honor, and love, resulting in a healthy society. The fact that three of the five relationships exist within the family highlights the importance of honoring family. Ritual maintains the li, or rightness, of everything, and is a way to guarantee that a person performed the correct action in any situation in life.

Daoism teaches that two basic components—yin and yang—are in all things, including health, the state, and relationships. Yin is the feminine principle, associated with soft, cold, dark, and moist things. Yang is the masculine principle, and is associated with hard, warm, light, and dry things. By keeping these two aspects of life balanced, harmony will be achieved. Another concept is that of wu-wei, action that is in harmony with nature, while qi is the life force in all beings. The Dao is always in harmony with the universe. Conflict is to be avoided, and soldiers are to go as if attending a funeral, solemnly and with compassion. Daoism also teaches the virtues of humility and selflessness.

Shintō is rooted in reverence for ancestors and for the spirits known as kami, which may be good or evil. By correctly worshipping the kami, Shintoists believe that they are assisting in purifying the world and aiding in its functioning.

Holy Places Confucianism does not always distinguish between sacred and profane space. So much of nature is considered a holy place, as is each home’s private shrine. In addition, some Confucian temples have decayed while others have been restored. Temples do not have statues or images. Instead, the names of Confucius and his noted followers are written on tablets. Like the emperor’s palace, temples have the most important halls placed on the north-south axis of the building. Temples are also internally symmetrical, as might be expected of a system that honors order. In Beijing, the Temple of Heaven, just south of the emperor’s palace, was one of the holiest places in imperial China.

Daoism’s holy places are often in nature, particularly mountains. The holiest of the five sacred mountains in China is Taishan, located in the east. Daoism also reveres grottoes, which are caves thought to be illuminated by the light of heaven.

In the Shintō religion, nature is often the focus of holy sites. Mount Fuji is the most sacred mountain. Near Kyoto the largest shrine of Inari, the rice god, is located. The Grand Shrines at Ise are dedicated to two divinities, and for more than one thousand years, pilgrims have come to it. The Inner Shrine (Naiku) is dedicated to Amaterasu, the sun goddess, and is Shintō’s most holy location. The Outer Shrine (Geku) is dedicated to Toyouke, the goddess of the harvest. Every twenty years, Ise is torn down and rebuilt, thus renewing the gods. Shintō shrines all have torii, the sacred gateway. The most famous of these is built in the sea near the island of Miyajima. Those going to the shrine on this island go by boat through the torii.

EAST ASIAN RELIGIONS IN DEPTH

Sacred Symbols Water is regarded as the source of life in Confucianism. The water symbol has thus become an unofficial symbol of Confucianism, represented by the Japanese ideogram or character for water, the Mizu, which somewhat resembles a stick figure with an extra leg. Other sacred symbols include the ancestor tablets in shrines of private homes, which are symbolic of the presence of the ancestor to whom offerings are made in hopes of aid.

While not a sacred symbol as the term is generally used, the black and white symbol of yin and yang is a common Daoist emblem. Peaches are also of a symbolic nature in Daoism, and often appear in Asian art. They are based on the four peaches that grew every three thousand years and which the mother of the fairies gave to the Han emperor Wu Ti (140–87 BCE). They are often symbolic of the Immortals.

The Shintō stylized sun, which appears on the Japanese flag, is associated with Amaterasu, the sun goddess. The torii, the gateway forming an entrance to sacred space, is another symbol associated with Shintō.

Sacred Practices & Gestures Confucian rulers traditionally offered sacrifices honoring Confucius at the spring and autumnal equinoxes. Most of the Confucian practices take place at home shrines honoring the ancestors.

Daoists believe that one can reach Dao (the way) through physical movements, chanting, or meditation. Because mountains, caves, and springs are often regarded as sacred sites, pilgrimages are important to Daoists. At a Daoist funeral, a paper fairy crane is part of the procession. After the funeral, the crane, which symbolizes a heavenly messenger, is burned. The soul of the deceased person is then thought to ride to heaven on the back of the crane.

Many Shintō shrines exist throughout Japan. Most of them have a sacred arch, known as a torii. At the shrine’s entrance, worshippers rinse their mouths and wash their hands to be purified before entering the prayer hall. Before praying, a worshipper will clap twice and ring a bell to let the kami know they are there. Only priests may enter the inner hall, which is where the kami live. During a festival, however, the image of the kami is placed in a portable shrine and carried in a procession through town, so that all may receive a blessing.

Rites, Celebrations & Services Early Confucianism had no priests, and bureaucrats performed any rituals that were necessary. When the Chinese Empire fell in 1911, imperial ceremonies ended as well. Rituals have become less important in modern times. In contemporary times the most important rite is marriage, the beginning of a new family for creating harmony. There is a correct protocol for each aspect of marriage, from the proposal and engagement to exchanging vows. During the ceremony, the groom takes the bride to his family’s ancestor tablets to "introduce" her to them and receive a blessing. The couple bows to the ancestors during the ceremony.

After a death occurs, mourners wear coarse material and bring gifts of incense and money to help defray the costs. Added to the coffin holding are food offerings and significant possessions. A willow branch symbolizing the deceased’s soul is carried with the coffin to the place of burial. After the burial, family members take the willow branch to their home altar and perform a ritual to add the deceased to the souls at the family’s shrine.

Confucians and Daoists celebrate many of the same Chinese festivals, some of which originated before either Confucianism or Daoism began and reflect aspects of both traditions. While some festivals are not necessarily Daoist, they may be led by Daoist priests. During the Lantern Festival, which occurs on the first full moon of the New Year, offerings are made to the gods. Many of the festivals are tied to calendar events. Qingming (Clear and Bright) celebrates the coming of spring and is a time to remember the dead. During this time, families often go to the family gravesite for a picnic. The Double Fifth is the midsummer festival that occurs on the fifth day of the fifth month, and coincides with the peak of yang power. To protect themselves from too much of the male force, people don garments of the five colors—black, blue, red, white, and yellow—and with the five "poisons"—centipede, lizard, scorpion, snake, and toad—in the pattern of their clothes and on amulets. The gates of hell open at the Feast of the Hungry Ghosts. Priests have ceremonies that encourage the escaped evil spirits to repent or return to hell.

Marriage is an important rite in China, and thus in Daoism as well. Astrologers look at horoscopes to ensure that the bride and groom are well matched and to find the best day for the ceremony. The groom’s family is always placed at the east (yang) and the bride’s family to the west (yin) to bring harmony. When a person dies, the mourners again sit in the correct locations, while the head of the deceased points south. White is the color of mourning and of yin. At the home of the deceased, white cloths cover the family altar. Mourners may ease the soul’s journey with symbolic artifacts or money. They may also go after the funeral to underground chambers beneath the temples to offer a sacrifice on behalf of the dead.

In the Shintō religion, rites exist for many life events. For example, pregnant women ask at a shrine for their children to be born safely, and the mother or grandmother brings a child who is thirty-two- or thirty-three-days-old to a shrine for the first visit and blessing. A special festival also exists for children aged three, five or seven, who go to the shrine for purifying. In addition, a bride and groom are purified before the wedding, usually conducted by Shintō priests. Shintō priests may also offer blessings for a new car or building. The New Year and the Spring Festival are among the most important festivals, and shrine virgins, known as miko girls, may dance to celebrate life’s renewal. Other festivals include the Feast of the Puppets, Boys’ Day, the Water Kami Festival, the Star Feast, the Festival of the Dead, and the autumnal equinox.

CRITICISMS

Like all religions or philosophies, Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintō have all faced numerous critiques throughout their histories. Often these have come from members of other faith systems, who may simply seek to elevate their own preferred religion at the expense of others. Such arguments can stem from basic prejudice. However, more intellectual-minded disagreements have also been raised on philosophical grounds, and these have contributed to the significant diversity of thought within Confucianism, Daoism, and Shintō. Critiques can come from secular sources as well. For example, some atheists criticize all religions equally for what they perceive as illogical and anti-scientific thinking and superstition. Humanists also frequently criticize the imposition of any state-sanctioned religion, as nations such as China and Japan have at times endorsed.

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