Criminology and forensic evidence
Criminology is the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior, focusing on the interactions between individuals and the criminal justice system. It encompasses various theories that explain the motivations behind criminal activity, including classical theories that posit offenders make rational choices based on perceived risks and rewards. The routine activities theory, a subset of criminology, outlines that a crime occurs when three factors converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of guardianship.
In contrast, positivist criminology suggests that criminal behavior is influenced by factors beyond individual control, such as biology, psychology, and social environment. Historical figures like Cesare Lombroso contributed to this view by linking physical traits to criminality, while other theorists emphasized the impact of social structures and environmental conditions.
Criminologists also study the victims of crime, known as victimology, to understand why certain individuals are targeted and identify preventive measures. The field is characterized by a diversity of perspectives and theories, reflecting the complexity of human behavior and the myriad influences that contribute to criminal activity. As such, criminology continues to evolve, integrating various approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of crime and its societal implications.
Criminology and forensic evidence
DEFINITION: Scientific study of crime and criminal behavior.
SIGNIFICANCE: Criminologists examine how people interact with the criminal justice system. They also study crime victims to understand why offenders target them and what risk factors increase the likelihood of victimization. The research that criminologists conduct into the causes of crime and social deviance assists with the classification and treatment of offenders as well as the identification of forensic evidence in relation to crime.
More than two hundred years ago, two utilitarian philosophers, Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) and Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), studied human behavior. They asserted that human beings conduct cost-benefit analyses regarding their future behavior and then act out of greed and personal need. The theory now known as classical is based on these premises: Potential criminal offenders have the free will to choose to act, and in making their decisions they compare risks to possible gains.
Although this theory lost popularity to newer theories over time, it has seen a resurgence in recent decades. Routine activities theory, for example, is a perspective in criminology that attempts to use deterrence theory to explain crime (and the treatment of criminal behavior). According to routine activities theory, for a crime to occur, three elements must be in place at the same time: someone who is motivated to commit that crime, a target worthy of victimizing, and the lack of a capable person to protect that target.
A potential criminal is less likely to victimize someone who has no money or material goods, or to victimize a person who is walking with a group of other people. Such circumstances should deter someone from committing a crime because they decrease the offender’s chances of financial gain and increase the offender’s chances of being caught, hurt, or identified. However, to design successful punishments based on deterrence theory, criminologists would need to prove that all criminals are rational human beings, that they think about the consequences of their actions, and that they actually believe they could be caught.
Challenges to Classical Criminology
Several criticisms have been directed toward classical criminology and deterrence theory. First, many offenders commit crimes under conditions that make it likely for them to be caught (that is, witnesses or victims can identify them). Second, most offenders know the risks involved (arrest, jail time, loss of the respect of friends and family) when they commit crimes. Further, some criminals do know the difference between right and wrong, but they nevertheless cannot stop themselves from committing crimes; mental illness or very low IQ, for example, might prevent some from understanding the consequences of certain behaviors.
Given the shortcomings of classical criminology and deterrence theory, some criminologists have suggested other explanations for criminality. For example, some theorists believe that the behavior of offenders is not something that can be controlled. Instead, factors beyond these individuals explain why they would commit crimes under less-than-ideal circumstances. These theories are part of the positivist school of criminology.
Positivist Criminology and Other Theories
In the nineteenth century, Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909), known as the father of positivist criminology, developed a theory of criminal behavior related to his medical research. As a doctor, he had noted similar physical characteristics among delinquents. He asserted that criminals exhibited apelike physical traits and that they were biologically and physiologically similar to the primitive ancestors of humans. Some criminologists and other theorists postulated that psychological problems (such as personality disorders) caused criminal behavior. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that human behavior was controlled by unconscious processes.
Criminologists have also examined how environmental factors play a role in predicting criminality. Sociological explanations of crime focus on social structure, culture, poverty rates, racial disparities, and neighborhood instability in relation to criminal behavior. They also examine community changes, the strength and weakness of social controls, and the role of the family, school, peers, and religion in explaining behavior. All of these theories blame criminality on factors outside of offenders’ control.
Criminologists have developed many competing theories that attempt to explain why crime happens and what the relationships are among offenders, victims, and the criminal justice system. Each theory has merit, yet a single explanation is insufficient, in part because each criminal is unique—an individual with a particular past and a person who may or may not have a conscience. Just as experts continue to debate the role of nature versus nurture in shaping human behavior, arguments continue between classical and positivist theorists in criminology. At the same time, some criminologists are attempting to develop integrated theories that combine some of the characteristics of both to explain criminal behavior. Further study, described as victimology, examines victims of crime to find ways to prevent crime and understand further how and why criminals target certain individuals.
Bibliography
Cohen, Albert K. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press, 1955.
Cohen, Lawrence E., and Marcus Felson. “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” American Sociological Review 44 (1979): 588-608.
Cullen, Francis T., and Robert Agnew, eds. Criminological Theory: Past to Present—Essential Readings. 3d ed. Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2006.
Merton, Robert K. “Social Structure and Anomie.” American Sociological Review 3 (1938): 672-682.
Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas: A Study of Rates of Delinquency in Relation to Differential Characteristics of Local Communities in American Cities. Rev. ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Turvey, Brent E. Forensic Victimology: Examining Violent Crime Victims in Investigative and Legal Contexts. 3rd ed., Academic P, 2023.
Vito, Gennaro F., Jeffrey R. Maahs, and Ronald M. Holmes. Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. 2d ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett, 2007.
Winslow, Robert W., and Sheldon X. Zhang. Criminology: A Global Perspective. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.