Science and Technology in the Postmodern Society

Abstract

This paper will explore how science and technology have been applied toward fostering continuing growth and prosperity during the twenty-first century. The true impacts of this era on humankind have yet to be fully realized, but its influence on what is known as the "postmodern society" is important as humanity continues to evolve with its technologies and their applications in the twenty-first century. The contemporary postmodern society has seen, as a result of these advancements, many amazing achievements, such as the Internet, ultra-efficient modes of transportation, and successful treatment of disease. An in-depth review of each of these three critical areas and their impact on postmodern society will be explored.

Overview

In 1900, the noted British physicist William Thomson Kelvin, speaking to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, proudly proclaimed that "there is nothing new to be discovered in physics now” and that “all that remains is more and more precise measurement." Kelvin's declaration was not the only short-sighted prediction he would offer. He also predicted that radio had "no future," that "heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible," and that "X-rays will prove to be a hoax" (anecdotage.com).

Kelvin's comments were indeed gross underestimations of the future of technology. Then again, few at the turn of the twentieth century could fathom the advancements humanity would see during the course of that century. In medicine, manufacturing, transportation, and, of course, computer science, humanity leapt forward tremendously in terms of scientific and technological capability during that pivotal century. Even in the last few decades before the twenty-first century, such advancements were critical not only for significantly improving efficiency and increasing productivity but for integrating international systems and fostering new forms of global commerce.

This paper will explore how science and technology have been applied toward fostering continuing growth and prosperity during the twenty-first century. The true impacts of this era on humankind have yet to be fully realized, but its influence on what is known as the postmodern society is important as humanity continues to evolve with its technologies and their applications in the twenty-first century.

Life in Postmodern Society. The term postmodern has often been considered a matter of perspective. It refers to a period of change that succeeds a previous period that featured a fundamental shift in development and modernization. In technological terms, an example of a previous transition from modern to postmodern is the change that occurred in the latter nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Kelvin was certainly not alone in his views: the introductions of improved telephony, the automobile, and aviation in the early twentieth century were the stuff of fantasy only a few decades earlier. Nuclear energy and space travel, which became commonplace in the 1950s and 1960s, were considered equally fantastic concepts for those of the pre–World War II period.

In the latter twentieth century, another postmodern era took shape. This time, society witnessed the introduction of computer technology, new energy sources, and fantastic advances in medical research (amongst other arenas). Over the course of only a few decades into the twenty-first century, telephones and computers have become smaller and yet far more powerful tools of communicating with people around the globe. While oil and coal remain the most used forms of energy, alternative sources of energy, once considered novel and hardly mainstream, have been transforming virtually every industry. Even medical science, an ever-evolving field throughout human history, has taken substantial leaps forward since the late twentieth century, saving and extending lives and answering questions that were once considered as elusive as the Sphinx.

Postmodern society has seen, as a result of these advancements, many amazing achievements, such as the Internet, ultra-efficient modes of transportation, and the successful treatment of disease.

Applications

Information Technology. At the end of the twentieth century, University of Montana philosophy professor Albert Borgmann commented on what he saw as both beneficial and detrimental to society concerning the explosive growth of the information technology industry. Computers and other forms of data collection hardware do indeed make the business process easier and more controlled, he argued, but by simplifying every aspect, it also creates something of a gulf between the item being controlled and the person responsible for its control. In other words, the less the operator needs to think about the process, thanks to the introduction of computers, the less connected to the process the individual becomes. Nevertheless, in his work, Borgmann acknowledges that the evolution of information technology (IT) in the postmodern era has helped pursue an important goal of humanity: "Information technology is rendering the entire earth ever more transparent and controllable" (2000, p. 191).

Indeed, information technology has become an invaluable tool for communicating, conducting business, and transferring data in the postmodern era. Early in its history of use, such technology was only available for those who could afford its relatively high price tag. However, the overwhelming diversity of the information technology marketplace has made personal computers, cellular phones, and other forms of IT hardware both available and affordable for many.

Even in the poorest regions of the world, the prevalence of information and cellular technology is indicative of its fantastic growth over a relatively short period. Between 1999 and 2004, the number of mobile telecommunications users in Africa jumped 58 percent, from 7.5 million to 77 million. In Asia, the number of users over that same period increased 34 percent (LaFraniere, 2005). The number of cellular and mobile phone subscribers in developing countries increased to 1.4 billion between 2000 and 2005, a five-fold jump.

Computer use has also seen major increases in use among poor nations. In India, only five people per 1,000 used the Internet in 2000—four years later that figure rose suddenly to 23 per 1,000. While the poor in India may not be purchasing personal computers in great volume, the subcontinent has enabled the use of "shared" computers by introducing computer kiosks into rural areas, and in light of the public demand, the government and private companies planned to bring hundreds of thousands more to these areas (Kuriyan, Ray & Kammen, 2008).

According to the Pew Research Center, in 2013, a median of 45 percent throughout twenty-one emerging and developing countries reported using the internet at least occassionally or owning a smartphone, and by 2015, that statistic increased to 54 percent (Poushter, 2016).

Technology & the Global Community. Information technology and cellular telephony, which have become increasingly intertwined, have helped usher in a new era of data collection and storage, information transfer and communication. Business is conducted at a far faster rate and at greater efficiency. Governments and nongovernmental organizations are able to more effectively and quickly track the effectiveness of programs and services. Valuable information is more readily available in every part of the globe. In the eyes of many, a world that was once separated by oceans and great geographic distances, and then later separated by the borders of nation-states, is becoming more and more interconnected into what many have termed a global community.

There are concerns among some that the increased globalization that accompanies the prevalence of information technology has unintended consequences. While such technology has helped bring into a global network millions of people who would otherwise have lived in isolation from the rest of the world, such a network works both ways. As the network contains invaluable information and resources that are developed predominantly in more developed countries, there is a belief among some that the global community may in fact foster a new form of colonialism and with it, cultures and national traditions may be blurred or even wiped out in favor of development (Zembylas & Vrasidas, 2005).

Certainly, as the world becomes more integrated and the flow of information becomes less encumbered, there is the possibility that some parties may benefit disproportionately from network use. Then again, this transnational network presents enormous opportunities for generating and conducting business, gathering data, and even saving money.

Alternative Energy Sources. As the use of the aforementioned technologies makes international commerce easier, the volume of commerce increases. Increased business inevitably leads to increased energy usage. It is in this arena that the energy sources on which the modern world relied have evolved in the postmodern world.

In the latter twentieth century, it became apparent that this evolution has been born out of necessity—not necessarily in terms of economic benefit but rather in terms of the survival of humanity. The modern world relied heavily on fossil fuels, chief of which are oil and coal. The use of these energy sources sent into the atmosphere untold amounts of pollution, which has in turn caused environmental damage in waterways, ozone, and other forms of resource contamination. Adding to this issue is that an overwhelming number of scientists believe that the discharge of such industrial byproducts has continued to foster global warming.

The postmodern world therefore has inherited a situation in which it must extricate itself from addiction to fossil fuels while not compromising industrial production. The solution that has become apparent is the development of alternative fuel and energy sources. These alternatives are multifarious. Renewable sources of energy include solar and wind power and hydroelectricity.

The concern about the use of coal and oil as energy sources is the size of the carbon footprint—the amount of greenhouse gases that are released by an individual or organization. The type of alternative sources of energy, therefore, must satisfy the criteria of sustainability: managed by democratic institutions, accessible in any part of the world, affordable, low-risk, and ecologically benign (Verbruggen, 2008). Renewable energy sources and so-called biofuels (naturally derived fuel compounds, such as corn, vegetable, and soybean oil), in addition to natural gas and clean coal technologies, in large part satisfy these criteria and reduce carbon footprints.

Of course, the transition from the traditional oil- and coal-based energy sources of the modern, latter twentieth century to the use of alternative fuels is ongoing. While the development of ethanol (which is derived from corn) presents promise in terms of its natural origins, efficiency, and benign byproduct (water), to produce enough ethanol to satisfy even a small percentage of an industrialized nation's energy needs entails the growth and consumption of a much larger volume of corn than most farms can produce. In 2008, the European Union, which had originally embraced the idea of mass-production of biofuels and, to that end, had put in place targets for the implementation of biofuel programs, chose to limit crop production for biofuel purposes until a more realistic assessment of potential renewable energy sources is made (Williams, 2008). Since that time, the “food versus fuel” debate—whether crop growth should focus solely on the elimination of world hunger—has caused the EU to deliberate not only how much biofuel should be used, but what types (e.g., algae instead of corn).

An additional concern for the postmodern world is that renewable energy and alternative fuel sources are not yet reliable, plentiful, and cost-effective enough to reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Because of that, the majority of all energy consumed around the globe comes from nonrenewable energy sources like coal and oil (University of California, 2008). Coal and oil remain the dominant energy sources in developing countries as well, as the price of installing renewable energy technology is prohibitive in places like India and China, who simply prefer to keep costs down by continuing to use fossil fuels for their industries.

There are signs, however, that such resources may be becoming more optimal. With scientific evidence mounting that pollution from coal-fired plants and gas-powered vehicle emissions are contributing to the growing issue of global warming, the stigma attached to these types of fuels is giving corporations a reason to consider switching to alternative energy sources. Since the 1990s, very few coal-fired energy plants have been constructed and brought online, despite a long list of potential projects, primarily because of this stigma.

Renewable and alternative energy sources remain a viable pursuit in the postmodern world. With a population that is growing in every nation, the transportation needs of such an increasing population necessitate high volumes of fuel sources. The high price of oil around the world adds to this issue, creating the imperative for more efficient engines and better energy management styles.

Medical Research. On July 5, 1996, a sheep named Dolly was born in Scotland. Her arrival touched off a firestorm of ethical debate, scientific wonder, and general controversy, because unlike any other mammal before her, Dolly was a clone. Suddenly, a concept that was familiar only to science fiction aficionados in the early to mid-twentieth century captured the attention of the entire human population. For scientists, Dolly represented a fantastic achievement with amazing potential for medical research. However, outside of the medical world, the birth set off a political and ethical maelstrom. The art of medicine and medical research has always entailed a pursuit of understanding and treating disease and injury. As the example of Dolly illustrates, however, the postmodern world is one in which medical research rides along an ethical rail.

Dolly's creation came about as the result of research at the genetic level. In fact, much of the medical research in the postmodern environment focuses on genetics, as it is in this arena that many diseases, previously considered incurable, are borne and transmitted to others. This focus has given rise to what some have termed the genetic revolution, in which scientists are conducting large social studies to unlock the secrets of genetic patterns and their relevance to why humans are the way they are. Gregory Stock, a prominent genetic researcher, has prognosticated that at some point in the second decade of the twenty-first century, "we will have done broad population studies associating certain genetic patterns with attributes related to health, to longevity … they will look at everything" (cited in Kolata, 2003, par. 4).

Arguably, one of the most controversial areas of genetic medical study in the postmodern world is stem cell research. Since their discovery in the 1960s, stem cells have been the subject of enormous controversy, not because of their value to medical research or their potential as treasure troves of information about disease, but because of the methods used to extract and study them. For much of the first decade of the twenty-first century, debate swirled around embryonic stem cells, which are derived from human embryos. Religious conservatives showed reservations because such embryos are destroyed for the purposes of study. Others echoed the story of Dolly the sheep, expressing concerns about developing the ability to clone humans from such cells. In the United States, a wide range of laws and regulations were created to confine stem cell research, but the debate raged until 2007, when scientists revealed that they could create viable stem cells without using and destroying human embryos (Bottum & Anderson, 2008).

One of the most interesting aspects of medical research in the postmodern world is that the nonmedical population has become increasingly more cognizant of its benefits and uses. Genetic research, after all, entails a great deal of information being volunteered by patients, and in the interest of full disclosure, the patients are made part of the inner circle. The information available to individuals (especially that which is found on the Internet) about medical practice and research has given a new connection between individuals with no medical training to physicians and medical researchers. This new relationship will likely continue to lead to even more medical advancements in the postmodern world.

Conclusions. The development and use of modern technology has elevated humanity to positions that were alien to those who came before them (sometimes within a generation). Throughout human history, great strides in technological advancement have created enormous leaps forward in terms of commerce, communications capability, and even in life expectancy. Each major step forward also helps move humanity from one period of modernity into a higher echelon of postmodernity.

There have been many postmodern eras in human history. As this paper has shown, civilization entered another postmodern era during the latter twentieth century. This period has seen many great advancements in nearly every part of life. This paper has identified three major areas. Integrated cellular technology and computer networks have brought the world together in a way never seen in history. Alternative fuel and energy sources were born of necessity, as every nation is looking for a way to offset the rising cost of oil and to halt the damage caused by pollution. Finally, advances in medical research have revealed extraordinary information that may help combat and cure the most vexing of diseases, even as they have presented moral and ethical questions in the process.

There will likely be other steps into another realm of modernization along the course of human history. Such advancements, which may for those in the current period in history seem like the product of science fiction, will take humanity from its present modern world into another postmodern era.

Terms & Concepts

Biofuel: Naturally derived fuel compounds, such as corn, vegetable, and soybean oil.

Carbon Footprint: The amount of greenhouse gases that are released by an individual or company.

Genetic Revolution: Term applied to the increased study of genetics in the course of medical research.

Information Technology (IT) The use of computers and telecommunications equipment to transfer, manipulate, store, and retrieve data. IT has become an invaluable tool for communicating and conducting business in the postmodern era.

Postmodern: Period of change that succeeds a previous period that featured a fundamental shift in development and modernization.

Renewable Energy: Fuel sources derived from natural elements, such as water, wind, and solar power.

Bibliography

Bailis, R., & Baka, J. (2011). Constructing sustainable biofuels: Governance of the emerging biofuel economy. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 101 , 827–838. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=61157909&site=ehost-live=ehost-live

Borgmann, Albert. (2000). Society in the postmodern era. The Washington Quarterly, 23 , 189–200. Retrieved November 9, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2755351&site=ehost-live.

Bottum, J. & Anderson, R. T. (2008, Nov.). Stem cells: A political history. First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life, 187, 15–23. Retrieved November 12, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=34853788&site=ehost-live

Craik, J. (2011). The Fastskin revolution: From human fish to swimming androids. Culture Unbound: Journal of Current Cultural Research, 3, 71–82. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60131923&site=ehost-live

Ehrich, K., Williams, C., Farsides, B., & Scott, R. (2012). Embryo futures and stem cell research: The management of informed uncertainty. Sociology of Health & Illness, 34 , 114–129. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=70469766&site=ehost-live

Kolata, G. (2003, February 25). A revolution at 50; Genetic revolution: How much, how fast? New York Times. Retrieved November 12, 2008 from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B01E1DD1F3DF936A15751C0 A9659C8B63.

Kuriyan, R., Ray, I. & Kammen, D. (2008). How to use technology to spur development. Issues in Science and Technology, 24 , 70–74. Retrieved November 12, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=28607457&site=ehost-live

LaFraniere, S. (2005, August 25). Cellphones catapult rural Africa into 21st century. New York Times. Retrieved November 7, 2008 from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/25/international/africa/25africa.html?%5fr= =2&adx nnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1226696459-pOD3KAd647qMJrE7dKTHbw.

McDaniel, J. (2008). Why renewables are still just around the corner. E — The Environmental Magazine, 19 , 30–31. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=34220236&site=ehost-live

Non-renewable energy sources. (2008, June 18). Retrieved November 12, 2008 from Connexions website (Rice University). http://cnx.org/content/m16730/latest/.

Peterson, L., & Price, A. M. (2016). Health, technology and the environment: The risks and rewards of modernity that shape confidence in science. Conference Papers—American Sociological Association, 1–17. Retrieved March 5, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=121201843&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Poushter, J. (2016, February 22). Smartphone ownership and internet usage continues to climb in emerging economies. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/02/22/smartphone-ownership-and-internet-usage-continues-to-climb-in-emerging-economies/

The power and the glory. (2008). The Economist, 387 (8585) 3–6. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=32765232&site=ehost-live

Verbruggen, Aviel. (2008, November). Renewable and nuclear power: A common future? Energy Policy, 36 , 4036–4037.

Williams, N. (2008). Biofuel debate deepens. Current Biology, 18 , 891–892.

Zembylas, M. & Vrasidas, C. (2005). Globalization, information, and communication technologies, and the prospect of a "global village": Promises of inclusion or electronic colonization? Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37 , 65–83. Retrieved November 10, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15219089&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Ethical storm brews over embryonic stem cell lines. (2008). New Scientist, 199 (2667), 6. Retrieved November 14, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=34032232&site=ehost-live

Idoko Okpanachi, A. (2012). Science and the postmodern challenge. Studies in Sociology of Science, 3 , 67–73. Retrieved October 30, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85294748&site=ehost-live

Kamerow, D. (2008). Waiting for the genetic revolution. British Medical Journal, 336 (7634).

Neuwahl, F., et al. (2008). Employment impacts of EU biofuels policy. Ecological Economics, 68 (1/2), 447–460.

Perry, S., Klemes, J. & Bulatov, I. (2008). Integrating waste and renewable energy to reduce the carbon footprint of locally integrated energy sectors. Energy, 33 , 1489–1497.

Wiig, A. (2003). Developing countries and the tourism industry in the Internet age. Forum for Development Studies, 30 , 59–87.

Winickoff, D. E., & Mondou, M. (2017). The problem of epistemic jurisdiction in global governance: The case of sustainability standards for biofuels. Social Studies of Science, 47(1), 7–32. Retrieved March 5, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=121294045&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Essay by Michael P. Auerbach

Michael P. Auerbach holds a Bachelor's degree from Wittenberg University and a Master's degree from Boston College. Mr. Auerbach has extensive private and public sector experience in a wide range of arenas: political science, comparative cultural studies, business and economic development, tax policy, international development, defense, public administration, and tourism.