White Sea ecosystem

Category: Marine and Oceanic Biomes.

Geographic Location: Russia.

Summary: The White Sea is an Arctic water body of international importance that faces environmental threats, with few ecosystem management plans in place.

The White Sea is located at the northwest corner of Russia, just touching the Arctic Circle parallel of latitude; it is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea. The White Sea is almost entirely surrounded by land, with the Kola Peninsula to its north, Karelia to the west, and Arkhangelsk Oblast to the south and east. The strait connecting to the Barents Sea runs along the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast.

Geography and Climate

There are four main bays or gulfs in the sea. In the south is Onega Bay; in the southeast is Dvina Bay, which holds the major port of Arkhangelsk. Kandalaksha Gulf is in the western part of the White Sea and is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 1,115 feet (340 meters). Opposite the Kola Peninsula, on the east side of the strait, is Mezen Bay. The main rivers draining into these bays or gulfs are the Onega, Northern Dvina, Mezen, and Kuloy. Other significant rivers that flow into the White Sea are the Vyg, Niva, Umba, Varzuga, and Ponoy.

The White Sea climate varies between polar and moderate continental. The winter is long, severe, and often unpredictable. The mean temperature in February is about 5 degrees F (minus 15 degrees C) and may fall as low as minus 22 degrees F (minus 40 degrees C). The ice on the surface of the sea may be up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick. At times, warm air from the Atlantic raises the air temperature to a “comfortable” 43 degrees F (6 degrees C). The temperature of the water in winter is about 28–30 degrees F (minus 1 to minus 2 degrees C). The salinity of the White Sea is 27.5–28 parts per thousand, lower than the mean salinity of the Arctic Ocean.

The White Sea is affected somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean, as its hydrology reflects processes linked with the warm Gulf Current. Together with its generally Arctic character, the Atlantic and freshwater links define many of the species in the White Sea. Most recently, nutrients, pollutants, sedimentation, and invasive species issues have recurred, because of many disturbances across the inland watersheds.

Biodiversity

Since 1930, a large part of the coastline of the Kandalaksha Bay and about 100 small islands in the White Sea have been declared protected areas. This was mainly to protect the eider ducks during nesting season and while the ducklings were growing up. During this time, hunting, fishing, and even visiting of these areas has been forbidden or strongly regulated.

The White Sea provides marine habitat for more than 700 species of invertebrates, about 60 fish species and five marine mammal species. The fishing industry is relatively small, mostly targeting harp and ringed seals (hunted mainly by indigenous peoples), herring, saffron cod, European smelt, Atlantic cod, and Atlantic salmon. There is also a small but developing seaweed industry.

Human Impact

The White Sea has been used by the indigenous population for thousands of years, and has played a role in western civilizations for more than 1,000 years. The sea was known to the Novgorod peoples since at least the eleventh century, and probably to the Vikings before them. It was used to link Russian trading cities with northern and central European cities.

One of the earliest settlements near the sea was established in the late fourteenth century in Kholmogory on the Northern Dvina River. Trade in furs, grains, and fish continued through the centuries between Russia, Denmark, England, and Netherlands. Of note is the White Sea Canal that opened in 1933, which—along with the existing natural waterways, Lake Vygozero, Lake Onega, Lake Ladoga, Svir River, and the Neva River—connects the White Sea to the Baltic Sea. The canal was built almost entirely with forced manual labor.

Global climate change impacts all of the Arctic regions, with habitat-altering changes recorded in sea-ice cover, sea level, air and water temperatures, and precipitation patterns. As the sea ice melts, the loss of ice cover has allowed more sunlight to enter the deeper waters. This has allowed several non-native species to proliferate into the White Sea region. Among them is the red king crab, a species native to the Sea of Japan. The crab is an invasive predator responsible for a sharp decline in the populations of local shellfish, sea urchins, and other species.

Strategic military and extraction-industry interests present other concerns in the White Sea, such as waste dumping, ongoing for over 70 years. Arctic shipping routes, oil and gas production, commercial fisheries, and inland watershed misuse have left strong traces of pollution in this otherwise robust and somewhat intact environment.

There is a small amount of tourism here in the form of deep-sea diving, but little threat to the environment stems from this. A Russian management regime has dominated the White Sea for centuries; more recently, a Norwegian and European Union agreement has been provisionally established. In either case, an efficient and sustainable management regime has not yet been implemented in a manner or scale sufficient to aid full recovery of the White Sea biome.

Global relevance of conservation practices in the White Sea has not been realized on an international level yet. There is some controversy whether, and what type of, human-made changes have already occurred in the White Sea region. Some Russian sources report little or no changes for local regions in the White Sea. It is noteworthy that diseases and invasive species have not entered this discussion yet, but there are ongoing observations to monitor any environmental changes.

Further risky economic growth schemes involving oil and mineral extraction are still planned for the White Sea. Yet, there are few relevant climate change policies in place for the overall preservation of this unique ecoregion.

Bibliography

Berge, Jørgen, et al. "Arctic Ocean: Climate Change Is Flooding the Remote North With Light—And New Species." The Conversation, 6 Dec. 2020, theconversation.com/arctic-ocean-climate-change-is-flooding-the-remote-north-with-light-and-new-species-150157. Accessed 17 Aug. 2022.

Berger V. and S. Dahle, eds. White Sea—Ecology and Environment. St. Petersburg, Russia: Derzhavets Publishers, 2001.

Pertsova N. M. and K. N. Kosobokova. “Interannual and Seasonal Variation of the Population Structure, Abundance, and Biomass of the Arctic Copepod Calanus Glacialis in the White Sea.” Oceanology 50, no. 4 (2010).

Stiansen, J. E. and A. A. Filin, eds. “Joint Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO)/Institute of Marine Research (IMR) Report on the State of the Barents Sea Ecosystem 2006, With Expected Situation and Considerations for Management.” IMR/PINRO Joint Report Series 2 (2007).

Solyanko, K., V. Spiridonov, and A. Naumov. “Biomass: Commonly Occurring and Dominant Species of Macrobenthos in Onega Bay (White Sea, Russia): Data from Three Different Decades.” Marine Ecology 32, no. 1 (2011).

Wilson Rowe, E., ed. Russia and the North. Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press, 2009.