RESEARCH STARTER

White Sea ecosystem

The White Sea is a unique ecosystem located in the northwest of Russia, serving as a southern inlet of the Barents Sea. It is bordered by the Kola Peninsula to the north, Karelia to the west, and Arkhangelsk Oblast to the south and east. The sea features several bays, including Onega Bay and Dvina Bay, with diverse hydrology influenced by both Arctic and Atlantic waters. Its climate is characterized by long, severe winters, with water temperatures hovering around freezing. The White Sea is home to over 700 species of invertebrates, approximately 60 fish species, and five marine mammal species, making it a vital habitat for marine biodiversity.

Historically, the White Sea has been significant for indigenous peoples and has played a key role in trade for over a millennium, linking Russian cities with Europe. However, it faces numerous environmental challenges, including pollution, the introduction of invasive species like the red king crab, and the impacts of climate change. Protected areas have been established to safeguard certain species, particularly during nesting seasons. Despite these efforts, effective management and conservation practices for the White Sea ecosystem remain insufficient, and ongoing development initiatives raise concerns about the future of this delicate environment.

Full Article

  • Category: Marine and Oceanic Biomes.
  • Geographic Location: Russia.
  • Summary: The White Sea is an Arctic water body of international importance that faces environmental threats, with few ecosystem management plans in place.

The White Sea is located at the northwest corner of Russia, spanning both sides of the Arctic Circle parallel of latitude, although the majority of the sea lies just south of the Arctic Circle; it is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea. The White Sea is almost entirely surrounded by land, with the Kola Peninsula to its north, Karelia to the west, and Arkhangelsk Oblast to the south and east. The strait connecting to the Barents Sea runs along the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast.

Geography and Climate

There are four main bays or gulfs in the sea. In the south is Onega Bay; in the southeast is Dvina Bay, which holds the major port of Arkhangelsk. Kandalaksha Gulf is in the western part of the White Sea and is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 1,115 feet (340 meters). Opposite the Kola Peninsula, on the east side of the strait, is Mezen Bay. The main rivers draining into these bays or gulfs are the Onega, Northern Dvina, Mezen, and Kuloy. Other significant rivers that flow into the White Sea are the Vyg, Niva, Umba, Varzuga, and Ponoy.

The White Sea climate varies between polar and moderate continental. The winter is long, severe, and often unpredictable. The mean temperature in February is about 5 degrees F (minus 15 degrees C) and may fall as low as minus 22 degrees F (minus 40 degrees C). The ice on the surface of the sea may be up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick. At times, warm air from the Atlantic raises the air temperature to a “comfortable” 43 degrees F (6 degrees C). The temperature of the water in winter is about 28–30 degrees F (minus 1 to minus 2 degrees C). The salinity of the White Sea is 27.5–28 parts per thousand, lower than the mean salinity of the Arctic Ocean.

The White Sea is affected somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean, as its hydrology reflects processes linked with the warm Gulf Stream. Together with its generally Arctic character, the Atlantic and freshwater links define many of the species in the White Sea. By the early 2020s, the Barents Sea region had become one of the fastest-warming parts of the Arctic, with rising ocean temperatures and a decline in winter sea-ice cover affecting marine ecosystems connected to the White Sea. Nutrients, pollutants, sedimentation, and invasive species issues have recurred because of many disturbances across the inland watersheds.

Biodiversity

Since 1932, a large part of the coastline of the Kandalaksha Bay and about 100 small islands in the White Sea have been declared protected areas. This was mainly to protect the eider ducks during nesting season and while the ducklings were growing up. During this time, hunting, fishing, and even visiting these areas have been forbidden or strongly regulated.

The White Sea provides marine habitat for more than 700 species of invertebrates, about 60 fish species, and five marine mammal species. By the early 2020s, warming in the Barents Sea had shifted some boreal fish species, including Atlantic cod, farther north, altering nearby Arctic marine communities. The fishing industry is relatively small, mostly targeting harp and ringed seals (hunted mainly by Indigenous peoples), herring, saffron cod, European smelt, Atlantic cod, and Atlantic salmon. There is also a small but developing seaweed industry.

Human Impact

The White Sea has been used by the Indigenous communities for thousands of years and has played a role in Western civilization for more than 1,000 years. The sea was known to the Novgorod peoples since at least the eleventh century and probably to the Vikings before them. It was used to link Russian trading cities with northern and central European cities.

One of the earliest settlements near the sea was established in the late fourteenth century in Kholmogory on the Northern Dvina River. Trade in furs, grains, and fish continued through the centuries between Russia, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands. Of note is the White Sea Canal that opened in 1933, which—along with the existing natural waterways, Lake Vygozero, Lake Onega, Lake Ladoga, Svir River, and the Neva River—connects the White Sea to the Baltic Sea. The canal was built almost entirely with forced manual labor.

Global climate change impacts all the Arctic regions, with habitat-altering changes recorded in sea-ice cover, sea level, air and water temperatures, and precipitation patterns. As the sea ice melts, the loss of ice cover has allowed more sunlight to enter the deeper waters. This has allowed several non-native species to proliferate into the White Sea region. Among them is the red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus), a species native to the North Pacific that was introduced into the Barents Sea by Soviet scientists in the 1960s and has expanded into the White Sea region. The crab is an invasive predator responsible for a sharp decline in the populations of local shellfish, sea urchins, and other species.

Strategic military and extraction-industry interests present other concerns in the White Sea, including documented cases of industrial and military waste disposal during the twentieth century. Arctic shipping routes, oil and gas production, commercial fisheries, and inland watershed misuse have left strong traces of pollution in this otherwise robust and somewhat intact environment.

There is a small amount of tourism here in the form of deep-sea diving, but little threat to the environment stems from this. A Russian management regime has dominated the White Sea for centuries; although not specific to the White Sea, in early 2026, the High Seas Treaty with the EU and Norway came into force. This treaty aims at creating a legal framework for creating Marine Protected Areas in high seas areas, including parts of the Arctic bordering the Barents Sea. In either case, an efficient and sustainable management regime has not yet been implemented in a manner or scale sufficient to aid full recovery of the White Sea biome.

Global relevance of conservation practices in the White Sea has not been realized on an international level yet. There is some controversy about whether, and what type of, human-made changes have already occurred in the White Sea region. Some Russian sources report little or no changes for local regions in the White Sea. It is noteworthy that diseases and invasive species have not entered this discussion yet, but there are ongoing observations to monitor any environmental changes.

Further risky economic growth schemes involving oil and mineral extraction are still planned for the White Sea. Yet, there are few relevant climate change policies in place for the overall preservation of this unique ecoregion although Russia updated its national climate-policy framework in 2023.


Bibliography

“Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction.” United Nations, Jan. 2026, www.un.org/bbnjagreement/en. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Årthun, Marius, et al. “The Future Barents Sea—A Synthesis of Physical, Biogeochemical, and Ecological Changes toward 2050 and 2100.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, vol. 13, no. 1, 2025, doi:10.1525/elementa.2024.00046. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Berge, Jørgen, et al. "Arctic Ocean: Climate Change Is Flooding the Remote North With Light—And New Species." The Conversation, 6 Dec. 2020, theconversation.com/arctic-ocean-climate-change-is-flooding-the-remote-north-with-light-and-new-species-150157. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Berger, V., and S. Dahle, editors. White Sea—Ecology and Environment. Derzhavets Publishers, 2001.

“Russian Federation.” Climate Action Tracker, 30 Sep. 2025, climateactiontracker.org/countries/russian-federation/policies-action/. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Fossheim, Maria, et al. “Recent Warming Leads to a Rapid Borealization of Fish Communities in the Arctic.” Nature Climate Change, vol. 5, 2015, pp. 673–677. doi:10.1038/nclimate2647. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Oliveira, César Soares de, and Katharina Heinrich. “On the Jurisdictional Situations of Arctic Large Marine Ecosystems.” ICES Journal of Marine Science, vol. 82, no. 2, 2025, doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsaf006. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Semushin, A. V., et al. “New Data on the Ichthyofauna Composition in the White Sea.” Journal of Ichthyology, vol. 65, no. 1, 2025, pp. 1–16, doi:10.1134/S0032945224700942. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Pertsova, N. M., and K. N. Kosobokova. “Interannual and Seasonal Variation of the Population Structure, Abundance, and Biomass of the Arctic Copepod Calanus Glacialis in the White Sea.” Oceanology, vol. 50, no. 4, 2010, pp. 531–541. doi:10.1134/S0001437010040090. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Repkina, Tatiana. "From the Sea Strait to the Meromictic Lake: Evolution and Ecosystem of a Water Body at the Fiard Coast (Lake Kislo-Sladkoe at the Karelian Coast of the Kandalaksha Bay, the White Sea, Russia)." Quaternary International, vol. 644-645, 20 Jan. 2023, pp. 96–110, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2022.05.015. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Stiansen, J. E., and A. A. Filin, editors. “Joint Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO)/Institute of Marine Research (IMR) Report on the State of the Barents Sea Ecosystem 2006, With Expected Situation and Considerations for Management.” IMR/PINRO Joint Report Series, no. 2, 2007.

Solyanko, K., V. Spiridonov, and A. Naumov. “Biomass, Commonly Occurring and Dominant Species of Macrobenthos in Onega Bay (White Sea, Russia): Data from Three Different Decades.” Marine Ecology, vol. 32, suppl. 1, 2011, pp. 36–48, doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2011.00438.x. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Wilson Rowe, E., editor. Russia and the North. University of Ottawa Press, 2009.

Full Article

  • Category: Marine and Oceanic Biomes.
  • Geographic Location: Russia.
  • Summary: The White Sea is an Arctic water body of international importance that faces environmental threats, with few ecosystem management plans in place.

The White Sea is located at the northwest corner of Russia, spanning both sides of the Arctic Circle parallel of latitude, although the majority of the sea lies just south of the Arctic Circle; it is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea. The White Sea is almost entirely surrounded by land, with the Kola Peninsula to its north, Karelia to the west, and Arkhangelsk Oblast to the south and east. The strait connecting to the Barents Sea runs along the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast.

Geography and Climate

There are four main bays or gulfs in the sea. In the south is Onega Bay; in the southeast is Dvina Bay, which holds the major port of Arkhangelsk. Kandalaksha Gulf is in the western part of the White Sea and is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 1,115 feet (340 meters). Opposite the Kola Peninsula, on the east side of the strait, is Mezen Bay. The main rivers draining into these bays or gulfs are the Onega, Northern Dvina, Mezen, and Kuloy. Other significant rivers that flow into the White Sea are the Vyg, Niva, Umba, Varzuga, and Ponoy.

The White Sea climate varies between polar and moderate continental. The winter is long, severe, and often unpredictable. The mean temperature in February is about 5 degrees F (minus 15 degrees C) and may fall as low as minus 22 degrees F (minus 40 degrees C). The ice on the surface of the sea may be up to 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick. At times, warm air from the Atlantic raises the air temperature to a “comfortable” 43 degrees F (6 degrees C). The temperature of the water in winter is about 28–30 degrees F (minus 1 to minus 2 degrees C). The salinity of the White Sea is 27.5–28 parts per thousand, lower than the mean salinity of the Arctic Ocean.

The White Sea is affected somewhat by the Atlantic Ocean, as its hydrology reflects processes linked with the warm Gulf Stream. Together with its generally Arctic character, the Atlantic and freshwater links define many of the species in the White Sea. By the early 2020s, the Barents Sea region had become one of the fastest-warming parts of the Arctic, with rising ocean temperatures and a decline in winter sea-ice cover affecting marine ecosystems connected to the White Sea. Nutrients, pollutants, sedimentation, and invasive species issues have recurred because of many disturbances across the inland watersheds.

Biodiversity

Since 1932, a large part of the coastline of the Kandalaksha Bay and about 100 small islands in the White Sea have been declared protected areas. This was mainly to protect the eider ducks during nesting season and while the ducklings were growing up. During this time, hunting, fishing, and even visiting these areas have been forbidden or strongly regulated.

The White Sea provides marine habitat for more than 700 species of invertebrates, about 60 fish species, and five marine mammal species. By the early 2020s, warming in the Barents Sea had shifted some boreal fish species, including Atlantic cod, farther north, altering nearby Arctic marine communities. The fishing industry is relatively small, mostly targeting harp and ringed seals (hunted mainly by Indigenous peoples), herring, saffron cod, European smelt, Atlantic cod, and Atlantic salmon. There is also a small but developing seaweed industry.

Human Impact

The White Sea has been used by the Indigenous communities for thousands of years and has played a role in Western civilization for more than 1,000 years. The sea was known to the Novgorod peoples since at least the eleventh century and probably to the Vikings before them. It was used to link Russian trading cities with northern and central European cities.

One of the earliest settlements near the sea was established in the late fourteenth century in Kholmogory on the Northern Dvina River. Trade in furs, grains, and fish continued through the centuries between Russia, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands. Of note is the White Sea Canal that opened in 1933, which—along with the existing natural waterways, Lake Vygozero, Lake Onega, Lake Ladoga, Svir River, and the Neva River—connects the White Sea to the Baltic Sea. The canal was built almost entirely with forced manual labor.

Global climate change impacts all the Arctic regions, with habitat-altering changes recorded in sea-ice cover, sea level, air and water temperatures, and precipitation patterns. As the sea ice melts, the loss of ice cover has allowed more sunlight to enter the deeper waters. This has allowed several non-native species to proliferate into the White Sea region. Among them is the red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus), a species native to the North Pacific that was introduced into the Barents Sea by Soviet scientists in the 1960s and has expanded into the White Sea region. The crab is an invasive predator responsible for a sharp decline in the populations of local shellfish, sea urchins, and other species.

Strategic military and extraction-industry interests present other concerns in the White Sea, including documented cases of industrial and military waste disposal during the twentieth century. Arctic shipping routes, oil and gas production, commercial fisheries, and inland watershed misuse have left strong traces of pollution in this otherwise robust and somewhat intact environment.

There is a small amount of tourism here in the form of deep-sea diving, but little threat to the environment stems from this. A Russian management regime has dominated the White Sea for centuries; although not specific to the White Sea, in early 2026, the High Seas Treaty with the EU and Norway came into force. This treaty aims at creating a legal framework for creating Marine Protected Areas in high seas areas, including parts of the Arctic bordering the Barents Sea. In either case, an efficient and sustainable management regime has not yet been implemented in a manner or scale sufficient to aid full recovery of the White Sea biome.

Global relevance of conservation practices in the White Sea has not been realized on an international level yet. There is some controversy about whether, and what type of, human-made changes have already occurred in the White Sea region. Some Russian sources report little or no changes for local regions in the White Sea. It is noteworthy that diseases and invasive species have not entered this discussion yet, but there are ongoing observations to monitor any environmental changes.

Further risky economic growth schemes involving oil and mineral extraction are still planned for the White Sea. Yet, there are few relevant climate change policies in place for the overall preservation of this unique ecoregion although Russia updated its national climate-policy framework in 2023.


Bibliography

“Agreement on Marine Biological Diversity of Areas beyond National Jurisdiction.” United Nations, Jan. 2026, www.un.org/bbnjagreement/en. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Årthun, Marius, et al. “The Future Barents Sea—A Synthesis of Physical, Biogeochemical, and Ecological Changes toward 2050 and 2100.” Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, vol. 13, no. 1, 2025, doi:10.1525/elementa.2024.00046. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Berge, Jørgen, et al. "Arctic Ocean: Climate Change Is Flooding the Remote North With Light—And New Species." The Conversation, 6 Dec. 2020, theconversation.com/arctic-ocean-climate-change-is-flooding-the-remote-north-with-light-and-new-species-150157. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Berger, V., and S. Dahle, editors. White Sea—Ecology and Environment. Derzhavets Publishers, 2001.

“Russian Federation.” Climate Action Tracker, 30 Sep. 2025, climateactiontracker.org/countries/russian-federation/policies-action/. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Fossheim, Maria, et al. “Recent Warming Leads to a Rapid Borealization of Fish Communities in the Arctic.” Nature Climate Change, vol. 5, 2015, pp. 673–677. doi:10.1038/nclimate2647. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Oliveira, César Soares de, and Katharina Heinrich. “On the Jurisdictional Situations of Arctic Large Marine Ecosystems.” ICES Journal of Marine Science, vol. 82, no. 2, 2025, doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsaf006. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Semushin, A. V., et al. “New Data on the Ichthyofauna Composition in the White Sea.” Journal of Ichthyology, vol. 65, no. 1, 2025, pp. 1–16, doi:10.1134/S0032945224700942. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Pertsova, N. M., and K. N. Kosobokova. “Interannual and Seasonal Variation of the Population Structure, Abundance, and Biomass of the Arctic Copepod Calanus Glacialis in the White Sea.” Oceanology, vol. 50, no. 4, 2010, pp. 531–541. doi:10.1134/S0001437010040090. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Repkina, Tatiana. "From the Sea Strait to the Meromictic Lake: Evolution and Ecosystem of a Water Body at the Fiard Coast (Lake Kislo-Sladkoe at the Karelian Coast of the Kandalaksha Bay, the White Sea, Russia)." Quaternary International, vol. 644-645, 20 Jan. 2023, pp. 96–110, doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2022.05.015. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Stiansen, J. E., and A. A. Filin, editors. “Joint Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (PINRO)/Institute of Marine Research (IMR) Report on the State of the Barents Sea Ecosystem 2006, With Expected Situation and Considerations for Management.” IMR/PINRO Joint Report Series, no. 2, 2007.

Solyanko, K., V. Spiridonov, and A. Naumov. “Biomass, Commonly Occurring and Dominant Species of Macrobenthos in Onega Bay (White Sea, Russia): Data from Three Different Decades.” Marine Ecology, vol. 32, suppl. 1, 2011, pp. 36–48, doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2011.00438.x. Accessed 16 Mar. 2026.

Wilson Rowe, E., editor. Russia and the North. University of Ottawa Press, 2009.

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