Play and Socialization

Last reviewed: February 2017

Abstract

Play is a necessary element in socialization. Organized play and team sports have a long history. The types of play enjoyed by individuals at any age may be highly related to temperament, which is evident at birth and changes little over time. Play is particularly important for preschool children, who are still in the process of developing social and cognitive skills, because it teaches them lessons in interacting with others that will be important throughout their lives. People of all ages are most likely to choose to play with friends and with those who follow the rules of a game.

Overview

Children have always played. When toys have not been available, they have made their own toys from sticks and stones, or pots and pans, or whatever is available. Historians of play have found that girls of all races and ethnicities have always been more inclined than boys to play close to home. Socialization patterns predispose girls to playing with dolls and dishes since they have watched their mothers and grandmothers caring for babies and cleaning and cooking. Boys have gravitated toward outdoor games, often military games or games of competitive skill. Slave children were severely limited in play time because they were often sent into the fields or assigned housework at an early age. Native American boys had a lot of freedom because their culture allowed them to enjoy activities like hunting and fishing.

In his history of American children at play, Howard P. Chudacoff (2007) suggests that between the American Revolution and the mid-1850s, play tended to be well-structured and heavily supervised. By the end of the nineteenth century, Americans had come to realize that play was essential to healthy child development. By the early twentieth century, Progressives and other reformers had become intent on abolishing child labor laws and ensuring that all children had the opportunity to enjoy childhood.

Between 1900 and 1950, parental supervision relaxed in favor of free play. The mid-twentieth century, according to Chudacoff, brought about a major transformation in the play of American children as it came to be viewed as a means of developing social responsibility. Toy manufacturers were quick to see the advantage of marketing to children, and television heightened opportunities for marketing as the century progressed. Contemporary parents have reported social pressure and feelings of guilt associated with not ensuring their children are involved in team sports or other organized forms of play.

Research on Play. Studies on play and socialization suggest that play is important in learning how to interact with others at all points of life. From an early age, play helps to build trust in other participants. Play also helps individuals learn to make decisions quickly in ways that are appropriate to a given situation. Furthermore, play encourages learning to deal with conflicts as they arise and finding solutions to problems that develop. The different kinds of play teach skills that range from learning a particular sport to developing critical thinking to learning to look at situations from different perspectives.

As children grow, they become less likely to play in the same way that young children play because their interests change, and they have less time for leisure activities. Many pre-teens and teens choose to spend leisure time playing video games. Video gaming has earned a bad reputation among many parents because of the violence prevalent in some games, and D. Walker, R. N. Laczniak, L. Carlson, and E. D. Brocato (2016) agree with earlier studies linking violent video gaming to aggressiveness and desensitization to violence. Some researchers argue, however, that video gaming may be a necessary part of play for young people. Most researchers agree that parental monitoring and limiting game time is essential to protecting children from potential problems associated with violent video games. Gaming may also benefit young children by helping them master such skills as language and mathematics, and many senior centers now offer video gaming as a way for older adults to remain mentally alert.

Applications

Young children engage in different kinds of play, and each type of play is essential to proper socialization. Infant play helps to teach young children how to recognize sounds, colors, and shapes. Most parents use play to encourage babies who are learning to crawl and walk. During preschool recess, children generally engage in free play in which they are able to choose both their playmates and a particular play activity. Preschoolers prefer to engage in small-group activities, while older children may enjoy playing in teams. Both preschoolers and elementary-school students are likely to cluster according to gender.

In general, boys tend to choose activities that allow them to expend their energy, while girls opt for quieter activities. Inside the classroom, play may be highly structured with limited choice of playmates and activities, or it may be semi-structured with some choices. Playing alone and with a single playmate is also important because such play may offer great opportunities for exploring the imagination.

Play and Childhood Development. In a 2015 study of 60 three- and four-year-olds, Jeffrey Trawick-Smith, Jennifer Wolff, Marley Koschel, and Jamie Vallarelli found that play helped preschoolers to engage in make believe. It also encouraged them to learn to regulate their own behavior, engage in problem solving, practice creative expression, and enjoy social interaction. These researchers maintain that the chief functions of toys are to inspire and enrich play and to bring children together to engage in interactive play.

The most popular toys for the youngest children were found to be blocks that allowed children to exercise their creativity through stacking or building and to engage in cooperative play. Puzzles were popular for solitary play. Young children also enjoyed playing with toy cars, miniature people, construction sets, dolls, and dress-up clothing. Children in the study most enjoyed playing with bricks that could be used to build a variety of structures or used to represent other objects and with multi-colored, featureless people that made no distinctions in gender, race, or ethnicity.

Playing with Others. Among preschool children, play teaches children how to communicate with others and helps them learn what is and is not acceptable when interacting with other children. Children with high levels of socialization are likely to cooperate well with playmates, and they exhibit helpfulness and courtesy and often smile during play. Educators consider play to be a major factor in measuring the ability of young children to socialize in both group and classroom settings. Children who have achieved social competence are those who have developed skills necessary to solve problems, regulate their own emotions, and communicate with their peers. They are also psychologically healthy and are sensitive and empathetic to others (Gagnon et al., 2014). On the other hand, children who have low levels of social competence are likely to have problems over both the short- and long-terms. They tend to be poor at interpersonal relationships, and they may suffer from various psychological disorders.

In 2014, Naomi Andrews and her colleagues conducted a short-term longitudinal study, examining 255 preschoolers at the beginning of the school year to predict whether or not they were likely to be victimized by their playmates because of low levels of socialization. At the end of the school year, teachers measured levels of victimization over the course of the year. The researchers found that children’s play differed according to group size, gender composition, and whether the activity took place on the playground or inside a classroom. The study demonstrated that children who experienced the highest levels of victimization were those who exhibited problem or aggressive behaviors or who were unable to control their own emotions and behaviors.

The study also indicated that victimization was highest in large groups where opportunities for conflict were greater. The opposite is true for adults who are more likely to experience problems in small-group situations where individual personalities have more impact on other members of the group. The researchers reported that victimization was highest in outdoor play, particularly among children aged nine to fourteen, because of a lack of direct teacher supervision.

Some researchers believe that the style of children’s play may be influenced by parenting style as well as by a child’s own temperament. In a 2014 study of three- to five-year-olds, Sandra Gagnon and her colleagues looked at whether parents were authoritarian or authoritative and whether a child was temperamentally reactive or and regulative. Reactive children often respond to others by withdrawing from play, but regulative children are able to respond appropriately to a given situation. Children with high levels of reactivity may not play well with others, resulting in peer rejection. The researchers concluded that the children with the most disruptive play styles were those with reactive temperaments and authoritarian parents. Such children were also less likely than others to engage in interactive play.

Issues

Play in Schools. Since the mid-twentieth century, American politicians and educators have been committed to ensuring that American students are able to compete with students from other countries. This goal has become even more urgent in the days of intense globalization. One result of this competition has been an increased emphasis on teaching to standardized tests, and play has come to be seen in many schools as a low priority.

Some schools, including kindergartens, have completely cut recess from daily activities, and others have slashed recess time drastically. David Elkind (2008) reports that between 1997 and 2003, outdoor playtime for children was cut by 50 percent, and more than 30,000 schools eliminated recess from schedules. Contrarily, some schools have found that even 10 minutes of play increases subsequent academic performance. Most adults understand that 10 minutes away from a task may improve subsequent productivity.

Play Outside of School. Ironically, while recess has been cut, there is increased emphasis on physical education because of widespread concern over childhood obesity. Critics point out that there is a vast difference in unstructured play outdoors during recess and team sports or activities undertaken in physical education classes. The American Association of the Child’s Right to Play recommends that schools offer children playtime at least 30 minutes twice each day. The issue of school recess has become increasingly controversial, and some legislatures, including Michigan and Virginia, have mandated school recess. In Georgia, the Atlanta Public School System abolished recess in the 1980s but later decided that children should have recess on any day that physical education classes were not offered.

Outside schools, cuts in community budgets and increased development have led to the disappearance of public playgrounds, particularly in urban areas. Instead, many parents and communities encourage participation in team sports. Team sports have been part of America’s leisure activities since the founding of the nation. There are historical references to soldiers playing ball during both the Revolutionary and Civil Wars. Officially, team sports for children began in the United States in 1939 when Carl Stotz of Williamsport, Pennsylvania, established Little League. Beginning at age nine, boys could play baseball for local teams. Over time, organized sports for children expanded to include football, basketball, soccer, and cheerleading, and children as young as four became eligible for tee ball.

Theories of Play. Since the late 1940s, therapists have found that play therapy may be useful in working with children with mental health issues. Virginia Axline pioneered the concept of child-centered play therapy (CCPT) in 1947, and other scholars have advanced understanding of the field. In 1962 in Play, Dreams, and Imitation, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, who is best known for identifying the four stages of the mental development of children, organized play according to four categories: functional, dramatic/symbolic, constructive, or rule-oriented.

Functional play was described as that in which children learned motor skills through such activities as playing with rattles or putting together wooden puzzles. Dramatic or symbolic play involved using one object to represent another or using imagination in play such as when a young child fills up a toy grocery cart with pasteboard groceries. Constructive play deals with creating and manipulating objects like drawing and forming objects from play dough. Sports and board games are examples of Piaget’s games with rules.

In a 2015 study, H. E. Wilson used Piaget’s classifications to discover that extremely intelligent children were more likely than other children to engage in functional play and were less likely to engage in constructive play. High-functioning children were also more inclined to engage in analyzing and solving problems and were more likely to choose to play alone. Although high-ability children were more interested in activities such as reading, writing, arts, and music than other children in their age group, high-ability children also tended to be highly socialized and cooperative when interacting with others.

New Methods of Play. The technological revolution of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries introduced new methods of play to all ages as games became available on computers, tablets, cell phones, gaming consoles, and a range of electronic devices. Games were developed to appeal to everyone from babies to senior citizens. New technologies also made it possible to play games with other players from around the world on computers and cell phones with games such as Farmville and Words with Friends, with console gaming through games such as Minecraft and Elder Scrolls Online, and online through massively multiple-player online role-playing games such as World of Warcraft. Children and families also continue to play board games such as Monopoly and Clue, and card games like Bridge and Poker continue to draw large numbers of adults who may play in real life or virtually on electronic devices.

Terms & Concepts

American Association of the Child’s Right to Play: American non-profit founded in affiliation with an international group established in Denmark in 1961 that is dedicated to promoting the notion that play should be considered an inherent right of children equal in importance to education.

Authoritarian Parenting: A style of parenting in which parents tend to be controlling and disinclined to show warmth when dealing with their children. Such parents are likely to punish their children for failing to measure up to established standards.

Authoritative Parenting: A style of parenting in which parents are more flexible with their children and are able to respond to a child’s own personality. Such parents are warm and supportive when dealing with their offspring and are dedicated to teaching their children to learn social and coping skills.

Child-centered Play Therapy: Method used by child therapists that is geared to an individual child’s ability to communicate. For example a child too young to make his/her feelings understood might draw a picture or act out a scene with dolls.

Child Labor: Before the passage of child labor laws, even young children were forced to work in mills, mines, and factories. They were paid almost nothing while working from dawn until nightfall, and children were often used in dangerous spaces inaccessible to adults. Efforts to ban child labor began in the 1830s, and Massachusetts passed the first state child labor law in 1836. It was not until 1916 that the first federal child labor law was passed, but an amendment that would have banned child labor throughout the country failed to garner sufficient support.

Piaget’s Stages of Development: Four stages identified by Jean Piaget that explain the mental development of children as they learn more sophisticated methods of reasoning. During the sensorimotor stage, children under two years of age concentrate chiefly on learning motor skills. During the preoperation stage, children from three to seven learn to use their imaginations and develop their intuitions. The concrete operational stage allows children from eight to eleven to exercise cognitive skills and learn to use logic. During the formal operations stage, children from twelve to fifteen have developed to the point that they can think in the abstract and determine cause and effect.

Progressive Era: Period that began in the last decade of the nineteenth century and continued through the first decades of the twentieth century and was concerned with improving the lives of the poor in the United States. Progressive reforms included efforts to abolish child labor and expand access to education. The settlement houses that opened in large urban cities such as Chicago and New York were founded by Progressives who worked with poor immigrants to improve standards of living and help them acclimate to life in the United States.

Bibliography

Andrews, N. C. Z, Hanish, L. D., Fabes, R. A., & Martin C. L. (2014). With whom and where you play: Preschoolers’ social context predicts peer victimization. Social Development, 23(2), 357–375. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=95562272&site=ehost-live

Chudacoff, H. P. (2007). Children at play: An American history. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Elkind, D. (2008). Can we play? Greater Good, 4(4), 14–17.

Gagnon, S., Huelsman, T., Reichard, A., Kidder-Ashley, P., Griggs, M., Struby, J., & Bollinger, J. (2014). Help me play! Parental behaviors, child temperament, and preschool peer play. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23(5), 872–884. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=96324834&site=ehost-live

Lin, Y-W., & Bratton, S. C. (2015). A meta-analytic review of child-centered play therapy approaches. Journal of Counseling and Development, 93(1), 45–58. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=100239300&site=ehost-live

Trawick-Smith, J., Wolff, J., Koschell, M., & Vallarelli, J. (2015). Effects of toys on the play quality of preschool children: influence of gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. Early Childhood Education Journal, 43(4), 249–256.

Vaughan, C.C. (2009). Play: How it shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and invigorates the soul. New York, NY: Avery.

Walker, D., Laczniak, R. N., Carlson, L., & Brocato, E. D. (2016). Parenting orientations as antecedents of children’s violent videogame play. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 50(2), 430–457.

Wilson, H. E. (2015). Patterns of play behaviors and learning center choices between high ability and typical children. Journal of Advanced Academics, 26(2), 143–164.

Suggested Reading

Celiešienė, E., & Kvieskienė, G. (2016). Play for children with disability. Case study from Lithuania. Social Education / Socialinis Ugdymas, 42(1), 70–82. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=118036254&site=ehost-live

Henricks, T. S. (2015). Play and the human condition. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.

Li, R., & Wong, W. (2016). Gender-typed play and social abilities in boys and girls: Are they related?. Sex Roles, 74(9–10), 399–410. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=114515409&site=ehost-live

Meier, D., Engel, B. S., & Taylor, B. (2010). Playing for keeps: Life and learning on a public schoolground. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Pasiak, C., & Menna, R. (2015). Mother-child synchrony: Implications for young children's aggression and social competence. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 24(10), 3079–3092. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=109308359&site=ehost-live

Sicart, M. (2014). Play matters. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Tierney, W. G. (2014). Postsecondary play: The role of games and social media in higher education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.