Watercraft

A watercraft is any type of vessel that can be used to travel in the water or underwater, including vehicles such as boats, ships, submarines, or submersibles of all sizes. Other devices used for mobility in or on the water, such as surfboards, jet skis, hovercraft, or underwater robotics, can also be considered watercraft. Watercrafts usually are propelled by an engine or through use of paddles, oars, or sails or a combination of means. The term watercraft may refer to a single vessel but is more commonly used as a collective term for vessels used in the water.

The main purpose of such vessels is for transportation including moving cargo or people, military use, exploration, or recreation. They can range in size from personal watercraft that fit one or two people such as jet skis or kayaks, to massive ships used for cargo, warfare, or leisure cruising that can carry thousands of people and several tons of cargo. Watercraft have been essential throughout human history and remain so in modern times.

Brief History

The history of watercraft and water travel is older than civilization. No evidence has been found to indicate where watercraft were first used or who invented them. The earliest boats were made of natural materials, such as wood, reeds, tree bark, or animal skins, and were by propelled by individuals using poles, oars, or paddles. Ancient canoes and rafts fastened together into a floating platform were likely used for hunting, fishing, transportation, and exploration in lakes, streams, and calm rivers.

The oldest discovered watercraft are dugout log boats that have been dated to from seven thousand to ten thousand years ago. The Pesse canoe, the oldest known boat, was discovered in 1955 when a roadway was being constructed in the Netherlands. Experts say the canoe was hollowed from a scotch pine log about ten thousand years ago. The second-oldest known watercraft are about eight thousand years old. The Dufuna canoe was found in Lake Malawi, Africa, while another dugout canoe and several paddles were found in eastern China at the Kuahuqiao excavation site in 2002.

The ancient Egyptians began making reed boats with masts and single sails to travel along the Nile River about 4000 BCE. By 2500 BCE, Egyptians had mastered the skill of building wooden sailboats that could travel through the stronger currents and winds in the sea. Wood was a major building material for several thousand years of human history.

About 1550 BCE, Phoenicians gained a seafaring advantage over those who relied on wind power. They used galleys of men with long oars in the hull to propel their war and trade ships. About 1000 CE, the Vikings started to build wooden longboats, which were long, narrow galley and sail-propelled boats able to travel by ocean. Viking ships were shallow, which allowed them to travel up rivers and in larger streams. This allowed the Vikings the flexibility to journey long distances to raid and conquer and develop extensive trade routes.

By 1100 CE, the Chinese people began to use watercraft called junks. These were fitted with rudders that allowed users to steer more effectively. Junks were reinforced with waterproof compartments in the hull and used wood pieces called battens to support the sail. In Europe, it would be hundreds of years before these features began to be incorporated into shipbuilding. However, by the fifteenth century, large multi-masted wooden ships with more complex designs were the primary means of transport in navies, trade, and exploration across oceans and seas.

The nineteenth century and the industrial revolution brought many changes to ships. By this time boat designers better understood physics. Clipper ships, which were taller, slimmer, and faster, were introduced in the early 1800s. Most large seagoing ships were made of iron or steel frames covered in wood. However, in 1855, the French invented a ferro-cement method they called Ferciment, which involves a metal wire framework covered in cement that was strong, easily repaired, and did not require a great deal of wood, which was becoming scarcer in Europe. As the cost of steel fell due to improved processes, more ships and boats began to use steel instead of wood.

In the mid-nineteenth century, ships used steam power from burning coal in combination with wind power. Iron ocean liners with underwater propellers replaced sail-powered ships for cross-ocean travel and transport. On major rivers, steam paddleboats called stern wheelers or paddle steamers began to become popular. These allowed for more efficient transport of people and goods inland.

In the early twentieth century, coal-burning ships began to be converted to diesel power and oil. Inboard and outboard motors were powered by diesel fuel in larger vessels and gasoline was used in smaller boats. It became more common for commercial ships and boats to be made entirely from steel. Wood was too expensive and was only used in small watercraft and luxury ships, such as yachts.

By the 1930s, smaller recreational and pleasure boats were more commonly made using steel, aluminum, or galvanized iron, but over the next few decades, aluminum alloys became the most popular choice for their durability and lighter weight. Strong, lightweight, and durable glass-reinforced plastic, or fiberglass, became the material of choice for smaller boats and watercraft used for recreation in the 1960s. Other synthetic materials, including foam and plastic, which float, resist corrosion, and are inexpensive, also became popular choices for small watercraft and flotation devices.

In 1955 Christopher Cockerell developed a new type of vessel called a hovercraft, which could float on air cushions. An engine served to blow air continuously into these cushions to provide lift and propulsion to the boat and allow it to travel on top of the water quickly. The hovercraft was useful in narrow or shallow waters that boats with deeper hulls had difficulty navigating. These vessels, which can also travel on land, ice, and other terrain, became popular for travel in shallow marshy or swampy waters and rivers.

Since the 1980s, most cargo has been transported over the ocean on large container cargo ships. Up to a thousand uniform, standardized steel containers are stacked on the flat decks. Cranes are used to load and unload the containers from the ship to trucks or trains for transportation to their destinations, providing an efficient means of mass cargo transport that revolutionized global trade and shipping.

While passenger cruise ships had been in use since the early nineteenth century, the 1990s saw an increase in the cruise ship industry for vacation travel. Luxurious modern cruise ships have hotel-style accommodations, restaurants, bars, theaters, casinos, swimming pools, and other features.

Overview

The global watercraft market is categorized based on what a vessel is used for and the type of propulsion it uses. Purposes of watercraft include pleasure, fishing, commercial, or military applications. Propulsion types include motor, sail, paddle, and pole. Local, state, and national governments define and regulate various types of watercraft. This may include registration and licensing systems and laws governing their use. International organizations, such as the United Nations Agency of International Maritime Organization (IMO), set standards for vessels in international waters. Many nations have adopted IMO regulations.

Personal watercraft (PWC) are small vessels used for recreation. They have an inboard jet drive that provides propulsion. PWC do not have contained areas. They are operated by one person who sits, kneels, or stands on the craft and may accommodate a passenger as well. Most jurisdictions require PWC to be registered and follow the same laws as other watercraft or specific laws relating to the operation of PWC. Legislation may regulate what type of vessel is defined as a PWC and differentiate between a flotation device, like a surf or paddle board; a self-propelled device, like a paddleboat or rowboat; and an engine-powered device, like a jet ski or jet board.

Terms such as sailboat, rowboat, tugboat, motorboat, fishing boat, and lifeboat are part of common use in the English language and the word boat may be used to describe most watercraft. However, ship is the preferred term for a large vessel that goes on or under the ocean and is propelled by engines or multiple sails. Boat therefore usually refers to smaller vessels.

Ships can vary considerably in size. The largest ship by volume is the Prelude FLNG (floating liquid natural gas platform) owned by Shell, which has a gross tonnage of 499,167. The FLNG has three 6,700 horsepower engines but is used as a floating platform and its owners refer to it as a facility. The longest ship ever built was the supertanker Seawise Giant, which was 1,504 feet (458 m) long. It was scrapped in 2010. To put these massive vessels in compassion, the Titanic passenger ship, which sank in 1912 on its maiden voyage, had a gross tonnage of 499,329 and a length of 883 feet (269 m).

Submersibles and submarines are watercrafts that travel below the water’s surface. A submarine operates independently, while a submersible is launched from another watercraft. These vary in size and can be large military vessels with hundreds of support personnel, single-occupant vessels, remote-controlled devices, or autonomous underwater vehicles. Some watercrafts may be considered semi-submersible, which means they can travel on the water and just below the water level, and others are amphibious, which means they can travel on land or water. These watercrafts are usually small in size and are used for recreation, military, or exploration purposes.

The marine industry has increased its demand for more technology integrated into watercraft, such as Internet of Things (IoT) technology that is common in many appliances and vehicles and allows data to be sent and received. In addition to IoT, smart sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) are integrated into watercraft controls to provide functions such as automatic pilot, entertainment, global positioning service (GPS) for navigation, safety monitoring, and communication connectivity. Industry analysts believe fully autonomous control that adjusts to current conditions, even in small boats used for recreation, is the future of watercraft technology.

The COVID-19 pandemic increased the demand for small boats, such as recreational and fishing boats, in 2020 yet temporarily lowered the demand for or delayed the construction of larger commercial ships. Some cruise lines sold ships for scrap. In 2021, commercial industries and tourism picked up and the demand for larger ships increased. However, inflation affected material costs while labor shortages and shipping delays further impacted the market, making ownership of a watercraft more costly.

Climate change has also affected the watercraft market. Anomalies of water levels and currents, due to either not enough or too much water, can cause problems for all types of vessels. Stronger and larger storms have become more common. The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) predicts that this trend will continue with an increase of 3 to 7 degrees on average by the end of the twenty-first century. Warming from melting ice and the normal expansion of water causes sea levels to rise, which increases the risks of flooding and storm surges in harbor areas. This increases the risks associated with owning a watercraft, which is reflected in insurance and maintenance costs.

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